A Passage to India by E.M. Forster critical analysis

 

Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet,
Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God's great Judgment Seat;

    --- The Ballad of East and West by Rudyard Kipling

A Passage to India (1924) is widely regarded as one of E.M. Forster's greatest novels, which analyses the historical condition of British colonialism in India, the cultural and racial tensions between the colonizers and the colonized, and the challenges of human connection across cultural divides. The novel is set during the British Raj and revolves around the friendship and misunderstandings between an Indian doctor, Aziz, and his British friends, Mrs. Moore and Cyril Fielding.

   At the core the novel lies a sharp critique of British colonial rule and its impact on both colonizers and colonized. Forster portrays the rigidly hierarchical structures that uphold the British Empire, making genuine relationships between British and Indians almost impossible. Aziz's trial becomes a metaphor for the cultural misunderstandings and power imbalances between the two groups. The British, represented by characters such as Ronny Heaslop and the club members, hold deeply established racial prejudices, while the Indians are seen as victims of this institutionalized racism.

   Forster critiques the British administration in India as being built on fear and arrogance, highlighting the difficulties of communication across cultural boundaries. Even the virtuous characters like Mrs. Moore and Fielding struggle to overcome these barriers. The failed friendship between Aziz and Fielding symbolizes the greater failure of intercultural understanding under colonialism.

   A central theme in the novel is the possibility of friendship between individuals of different races and cultures. Forster suggests that personal relationships, based on mutual respect and understanding, might transcend the barriers of colonialism. However, the novel shows that such connections are fragile and constantly threatened by external political and social forces.

   Dr. Aziz and Cyril Fielding’s friendship is emblematic of this tension. While they form a bond of mutual respect, their relationship eventually collapses under the weight of colonial suspicion, racial prejudice, and cultural differences. In the final chapter, Forster makes it clear that under British rule, true friendship between an Indian and a British person cannot survive.

   Religion and spirituality play an important role in A Passage to India. The novel contrasts three main religious groups: Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Each of these religious traditions is portrayed as shaping the characters' worldviews and their approaches to life and society.

   Hinduism, particularly in the figure of Professor Godbole, is presented as a unifying, all-encompassing force that seeks harmony among diverse peoples. Islam, represented by Aziz, is portrayed as vibrant but also isolated due to its minority status in India. Christianity, embodied by the British colonizers, is often shown as rigid and unyielding. Forster wants to emphasize the fact the Indian culture can strongly preserve the sense of diversity.

   The Marabar Caves, which form the novel’s symbolic core, represent a kind of spiritual void or mystery that transcends all religions. The echo in the caves serves as a metaphor for the existential uncertainty and the breakdown of communication between people, religions, and cultures. The caves challenge the characters' religious beliefs and their understanding of reality.

   The Marabar Caves are one of the most significant symbols in A Passage to India. They represent the incomprehensibility and mystery of India, not only to the British but also to the Indians themselves. The caves have a profound psychological impact on the characters, especially on Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested, who find themselves confronted with the emptiness and ambiguity that the caves evoke.

   The caves serve as a metaphor for the larger cultural and existential crisis at the heart of the novel. The darkness inside the cave symbolically signifies inherent darkness of the characters.  For Mrs. Moore, they provoke a spiritual crisis, leading her to withdraw from life and become disillusioned with her earlier belief in the possibility of reconciliation between the British and the Indians. For Adela, the caves trigger her hallucination of an assault, leading to Aziz’s false accusation and subsequent trial, which serves as the novel’s climax.

   The ending of A Passage to India is notably ambiguous. Aziz and Fielding meet again and re - establish their friendship , with Aziz proclaiming that only after the British leave India can they be friends again. Forster refuses to provide a clear resolution to the novel's central conflicts, leaving the reader with a sense of uncertainty about the future of Anglo-Indian relations.

   The novel's portrayal of women, particularly Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested, raises important questions about gender, race, and colonialism. Mrs. Moore, despite being a sympathetic character who initially believes in the possibility of harmony between cultures, is ultimately overwhelmed by her experience in the caves. Her spiritual disillusionment reflects the broader failure of the British characters to understand India.

   Adela, on the other hand, represents the liberal, reformist attitude that seeks to do good in India but is ultimately misguided. Her false accusation against Aziz stems from a combination of cultural misunderstanding and personal psychological crisis. Her false accusation towards Dr.Aziz can be considered as the deep seated prejudice towards Indians.  Both women’s experiences reflect the novel’s larger critique of British colonialism, which not only oppresses Indians but also distorts the lives of the colonizers themselves.

   The novel’s structure is also significant, divided into three parts—“Mosque,” “Caves,” and “Temple”—each representing different stages in the characters’ relationships and their encounters with India. The first part, “Mosque,” symbolizes the possibility of friendship and understanding. “Caves” represents the crisis and breakdown of these relationships, while “Temple” offers a tentative hope for reconciliation, though this hope remains largely unrealized.

The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas by Ursula K. Le Guin summary and analysis

 

Ursula K. Le Guin’s The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas is a philosophical short story exploring the cost of utopia and the moral dilemmas it raises. The story is structured around the description of a seemingly perfect city called Omelas, followed by a dark revelation about the foundation of its happiness, and concludes with the contemplation of those who reject the city's terms.

 
Section 1: The Utopian City of Omelas

 The story begins with a realistic description of the city of Omelas during a summer festival. Omelas is introduced as a city of joy, peace, and prosperity, where the citizens live free from guilt, fear, and sorrow. Le Guin paints a picture of an idyllic society, where there is no need for kings, slaves, or oppressive laws to maintain order. The citizens of Omelas are described as intelligent and cultured, leading fulfilling lives filled with happiness.

The narrator emphasizes that Omelas is not a society of naive or simple people, but rather, a complex and sophisticated one:

 - “They were not simple folk, you see, though they were happy. But we do not say the words of cheer much any more. All smiles have become archaic.”

In this utopia, there are no temples, priests, or religious rules, and the citizens have complete freedom. However, Le Guin leaves many aspects of Omelas intentionally vague, encourages the reader to imagine it according to their own ideals. She even invites readers to invent additional aspects of the city, saying: 

 - “Omelas sounds in my words like a city in a fairy tale, long ago and far away, once upon a time. Perhaps it would be best if you imagined it as your own fancy bids, assuming it will rise to the occasion.”

 The narrator also makes it clear that Omelas is not a place where happiness is derived from ignorance or irrationality. Instead, the people live in harmony with reason and are aware of the complexities of the world.

 

Section 2: The Child in the Basement

 The tone of the story shifts dramatically as the narrator introduces a dark, shocking reality. Beneath the city's surface, locked in a small, windowless room, is a malnourished and neglected child. This child, described as "feeble-minded" and filthy, is kept in a state of perpetual suffering. The narrator reveals that the prosperity, happiness, and beauty of Omelas depend entirely on the misery of this one child:

- “They all know it is there, all the people of Omelas. Some of them have come to see it; others are content merely to know it is there. They all know that it has to be there.”
The child’s suffering is an integral part of Omelas’ existence; without the child’s pain, the city’s happiness would collapse. The citizens are aware of this horrific secret, and at some point, they are each brought to see the child, usually when they are young. The sight is described in graphic detail:

- “In the room, a broom, a mop, and rusty buckets. The floor is dirt, a little damp to the touch, as if the child had been crying there for a long time.”

 The citizens’ awareness of the child’s plight, and their acceptance of this suffering as necessary for their happiness, creates a moral tension at the heart of the story. The child, who once may have been like any other child, is now beyond help.

Section 3: The Citizens' Rationalization

 The citizens of Omelas are horrified when they first learn about the child, but eventually, they come to accept the necessity of its suffering. They rationalize that freeing the child would destroy the city’s happiness and render the lives of the many unbearable. The sacrifice of the child is justified as the cost of maintaining the utopia:

- “To throw away the happiness of thousands for the chance of happiness for one: that would be to let guilt within the walls indeed.”

 
The people of Omelas are not callous or indifferent to the child’s suffering. They feel empathy and sadness, but they also recognize that the collective good depends on this one individual’s misery. This moral compromise is central to the story’s ethical dilemma. The narrator explains that people go through a process of struggling with this knowledge, eventually convincing themselves that the child’s suffering is necessary for the greater good.

 
Section 4: The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas

However, not all the citizens of Omelas can accept this moral compromise. Some individuals, after seeing the child, choose to walk away from Omelas. These people quietly leave the city, heading into the unknown, to a place the narrator cannot describe:

- “They leave Omelas, they walk ahead into the darkness, and they do not come back. The place they go towards is a place even less imaginable to most of us than the city of happiness. I cannot describe it at all. It is possible that it does not exist.”

The story concludes with the image of these individuals walking away, their motivations left ambiguous. They reject the city but do not explain what they hope to find or where they are going. This act of walking away can be seen as a moral statement, a refusal to participate in a system that requires the suffering of the innocent. However, the nature of their journey and their destination is left open to interpretation.

 
Analysis

The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas explores the concept of a utopia that is built on a hidden dystopian reality. Omelas represents an ideal society, but its perfection is dependent on the abject misery of one child. This raises philosophical questions about the nature of happiness and whether it can be morally justified if it comes at the cost of another’s suffering.

The central moral question of the story is whether the happiness of the many can justify the suffering of the few, or in this case, the one. The story forces the reader to confront the uncomfortable truth that many ideal societies might hide dark secrets or moral compromises. The citizens’ decision to either accept the child’s suffering or walk away from Omelas represents two possible responses to this dilemma.

 
The child’s existence symbolizes the sacrifice required to maintain social happiness. The narrator hints that the people of Omelas experience guilt, but they learn to rationalize it. The ones who walk away, however, refuse to accept this guilt, suggesting an alternative moral choice, even if it means leaving behind the comforts of the utopia.

The story’s open-ended conclusion invites readers to interpret the actions of those who walk away from Omelas. Are they choosing a more moral path by rejecting the city's terms, or are they simply avoiding the moral complexity of the situation? Le Guin does not offer clear answers, instead leaving the reader to reflect on the implications of their decision.

Omelas is presented as an idyllic city, a utopia where people live in happiness, freedom, and peace. The city is portrayed in glowing terms, with references to beautiful architecture, joyous festivals, and a sophisticated populace. At first glance, Omelas embodies the ideal of a perfect society. The narrator invites readers to imagine their own vision of a perfect city, adapting Omelas to their ideals:

 
- “Omelas sounds in my words like a city in a fairy tale, long ago and far away, once upon a time.”

This invitation to imagine a personal utopia introduces the idea that Omelas is not a concrete place, but rather a symbol of human desires for perfection. The open-ended description allows readers to project their own visions of a perfect society onto Omelas. However, as the story unfolds, it becomes clear that Omelas, despite its beauty and happiness, is built on a moral compromise.

 

Symbolism of Omelas

 Omelas represents not only an idealized society but also the illusion of a perfect world. The perfection of Omelas is conditional, it depends on the suffering of one child, an element hidden beneath the surface. This duality makes Omelas symbolic of societies that appear prosperous or just on the surface but hide exploitation, suffering, or injustice in the background. The city stands as a metaphor for any human society where the well-being of the majority is predicated on the oppression of a marginalized few, a critique of real-world systems where privilege and comfort for some are maintained at the expense of others.

The most striking symbol in the story is the child locked in the basement. The child’s existence is a stark contrast to the beauty and joy of Omelas, and it represents the dark secret that underpins the city’s happiness. The child, malnourished, neglected, and mistreated, is kept in a small, filthy room, and its suffering is described in harrowing detail:
- “It is so thin there are no calves to its legs; its belly protrudes; it lives on a half-bowl of cornmeal and grease a day. It is naked. Its buttocks and thighs are a mass of festered sores.”

The suffering of the child is symbolic of the sacrifices that are made in the name of social progress or collective happiness. The people of Omelas know that their happiness and prosperity depend on this child’s misery, and they rationalize that this is necessary to maintain their utopian lifestyle. The child becomes a representation of the marginalized, the oppressed, or the exploited individuals who bear the burden of maintaining societal structures that benefit the majority.

 
Symbolism of the Child

  The child in the basement symbolizes the hidden injustices or moral compromises that are often foundational to seemingly perfect systems. The idea that Omelas’ happiness depends entirely on the child’s misery suggests that utopias are always built on some form of sacrifice or exploitation. The child’s helplessness also reflects the powerlessness of those who are forced to suffer for the sake of others. In a broader context, this can be seen as a commentary on how modern societies often ignore or accept the suffering of a few (such as the poor, the oppressed, or marginalized groups) in order to maintain comfort or prosperity for the many.

The citizens of Omelas symbolize those who benefit from systems of inequality or oppression but choose not to act against them. Their ability to rationalize the suffering of the child reflects how people often accept injustice if it does not directly affect them or if they believe they are powerless to change it. This complicity is central to the story’s ethical dilemma: Is it acceptable to maintain one’s happiness when it depends on the suffering of others?

At the story’s conclusion, Le Guin introduces the concept of "the ones who walk away from Omelas." These are the individuals who, after seeing the child, cannot accept the terms of the city’s happiness and choose to leave:

- “They leave Omelas, they walk ahead into the darkness, and they do not come back.”

The ones who walk away are a powerful symbol of moral rejection. They do not confront the citizens of Omelas or attempt to free the child, but they reject the society’s moral compromise and choose to distance themselves from it. The narrator explains that these people walk into the unknown, to a place that is "less imaginable" than Omelas, suggesting that they choose uncertainty and moral integrity over complicity and comfort.

Those who walk away symbolize the individuals who refuse to accept immoral systems, even at the cost of personal comfort. Their departure signifies a moral stand against the exploitation of the weak, and their willingness to leave the city reflects the difficult choices that individuals must make when confronted with injustice. Their walking away into the unknown suggests that there may not be a clear or perfect alternative to Omelas, but that the act of rejecting the system

Le Guin leaves the final destination of those who walk away ambiguous. The narrator suggests that the place they go to is "even less imaginable" than Omelas. This ambiguity invites multiple interpretations. The unknown they walk into could represent a place of moral purity, a utopia not based on suffering, or it could symbolize the isolation and difficulty of standing against the crowd.

 
By leaving this destination undefined, Le Guin suggests that moral integrity often requires venturing into uncertainty. The ones who walk away are not guaranteed a better life, but they are choosing to act on their conscience rather than remaining in a society that demands change.

Funny Boy by Shyam Selvadurai : Summary and analysis

 

Shyam Selvadurai’s Funny Boy as a novel that deals with the coming-of-age of a queer protagonist amidst the conflict ridden nation of Sri Lanka. It will provide a brief introduction to Sri Lankan history, especially the long and arduous ethnic conflict and civil war between the Tamils and the Sinhalese. It will also study the processes through which individuals establish their social, national and sexual identities. This will be done by taking a closer look at gender constructs in society and how they influence the young protagonist’s journey from innocence to maturity. Finally, it will attempt to comprehend the nuances of the word ‘funny’ in the title with respect to queerness and homosexuality.

 

It was published in 1994, Funny Boy is set in Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka, in the months leading up to the riots. The novel is narrated from the point of view of seven year old Arjie and details his experiences within his family and in his school. In each of the six sections of the novel, Arjie learns valuable life lessons through his interactions with different characters. Through these relationships, he inches closer towards embracing his unique identity, both as a queer homosexual and as a member of an ethnic minority who is forced to flee his country and immigrate to Canada. This becomes the lens through which the novel examines the ways in which people with different social, ethnic and sexual identities relate to the idea of belonging to a nation. Shyam Selvadurai is a Sri Lankan-Canadian novelist who was born in Sri Lanka and currently lives in Toronto. When Selvadurai was nineteen, his family migrated to Canada during the ethnic riots of 1983. These riots were triggered when the Tamil militant group the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) attacked and killed several soldiers of the Sri Lankan Army. In response to this incident, anti- Tamil riots broke out in Colombo and spread to other parts of the country. As is evident, there are several similarities between Selvadurai’s biographical details and Arjie’s fictional persona; yet, Selvadurai has often categorically stated that Funny Boy is not an autobiographical narrative. Funny Boy as we know by now talks about a queer identity as Arije is a queer.

 

Queer is a sort of broad rubric term for sexual and gender minorities who are not heterosexual. The word ‘queer’ actually means strange or peculiar or weird, but later it was often used to describe those men and women who were interested in people of the same sex. Needless to say, the usage of the word ‘queer’ (particularly in the 16th Century) was in a pejorative/ negative manner. By the 19^th century the word ‘queer’ was used to define or describe men who were more feminine than masculine and who were believed to have had same sex relationships. In short, it began to acquire the connotations of men engaged in a homosexual relationship. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, homosexuality began to be recognised as a category of people with non heterosexual needs and relationships and there developed a male gay subculture.  

 

Funny Boy by Shyam Selvadurai is a touching coming-of-age novel set in Sri Lanka during the years leading up to the outbreak of the civil war between the Tamil and Sinhalese communities. It follows Arjun Chelvaratnam, a young Tamil boy struggling with his sexual identity and the sociopolitical turmoil around him.

Chapter 1: Pigs Can’t Fly

 In this opening chapter, a seven-year-old Arjie prefers playing with his girl cousins over the boys, especially in a game called "bride-bride," where he enjoys dressing up as a bride. This simple pleasure causes tension in his conservative Tamil family, particularly with his father, who is worried about Arjie’s gender nonconformity.

 - Arjie dresses up as a bride during family gatherings, relishing the admiration he receives.
- His cousin Tanuja (nicknamed "Her Fatness") creates several gossips.
- Arjie’s father, wanting to "cure" him of his femininity, sends him to play with the boys, specifically making him play cricket, which he detests.

- “The pleasure I felt in dressing up came not only from the admiration I received but also from the fact that it allowed me to leave the constraints of myself and ascend into another, more brilliant, more beautiful self.”

- “What is this funny business?” (Arjie’s father, expressing concern about his son’s behavior)

Chapter 2: Radha Aunty

Radha Aunty, Arjie’s modern, fun-loving aunt, returns from studying in America. She introduces Arjie to different forms of entertainment, including musicals like The King and I. Radha becomes romantically involved with Anil, a Sinhalese man, but their relationship faces opposition due to the ethnic tension between the Tamil and Sinhalese communities.

- Radha and Anil begin to date, much to the dismay of the family, especially the grandmother.
- Arjie becomes close to Radha, sensing in her a kindred spirit who doesn’t fit into conventional norms.

- Radha is attacked by Sinhalese extremists during a train journey, and the relationship with Anil ends under family and social pressure.

- “Don’t worry, Arjie, when you grow up, the world will change.” (Radha Aunty, foreshadowing the change in societal norms)

- “We’re a Tamil family... It wouldn’t work. It’s for the best, darling.” (Radha explaining the impossibility of her relationship with Anil)

Chapter 3  : See No Evil, Hear No Evil

 
Daryl Uncle, a family friend and journalist, returns from abroad. Arjie is drawn to him, seeing in him a strong, independent figure. Daryl begins investigating the government’s abuses against the Tamil minority, placing him in danger. Arjie’s mother starts spending more time with Daryl, rekindling an old romance.

- Arjie becomes aware of the government’s crackdown on Tamil communities.
- Daryl Uncle disappears while investigating Tamil persecution. His death is later confirmed, likely at the hands of government forces.

- Arjie’s mother confronts the reality of Daryl’s death and the dangerous political climate.
 
- “The truth is the truth, even if no one believes it. A lie is a lie, even if everyone believes it.” (Daryl Uncle’s belief in exposing the truth despite the danger)

- “There is a price for everything... and this is the price we have to pay.” (Arjie’s mother reflecting on the cost of defying societal norms)

Chapter 4: Small Choices

 Jegan, the son of Arjie’s father’s close friend, comes to live with the family. He is a Tamil with a history of involvement in the Tamil Tigers, a militant group fighting for Tamil independence. Jegan’s presence brings political tension into the family home, and Arjie observes how his father tries to distance himself from politics while Jegan faces discrimination.

- Jegan is ostracized and accused of being a Tamil Tiger sympathizer.

- Arjie’s father tries to maintain a neutral stance but ultimately decides to fire Jegan to protect the family from potential danger.

- Jegan leaves, disillusioned by the betrayal.

- “It was as if we were animals in a cage, and we had lost the knowledge that the bars around us were not real.”

- “Small choices were the things from which you could be condemned.”

Chapter 5: The Best School of All

 Arjie is sent to Victoria Academy, a prestigious boys’ school, where he encounters bullying and strict hierarchies. Arjie befriends Shehan, a classmate, and their relationship blossoms into a romantic one. Arjie struggles with his feelings for Shehan, while the school’s principal, "Black Tie," becomes a symbol of oppressive authority.

- Arjie faces bullying for being different and befriends Shehan, who is also marginalized.
- The relationship between Arjie and Shehan becomes romantic, deepening Arjie’s self-awareness about his sexuality.

- “It was the first time I had experienced the sense of being connected to another human being so completely.”

- “I felt a fierce joy... that I had struck back at Black Tie.”

Chapter 6: Riot Journal: An Epilogue

 The novel’s final chapter is set during the 1983 anti-Tamil riots, known as Black July. The political situation in Sri Lanka has reached a boiling point, and Arjie’s family is directly affected by the violence. Their home is ransacked, and the family is forced to flee. Arjie’s understanding of his Tamil identity deepens as the ethnic conflict tears apart the nation.

- The family home is attacked during the riots, and they are forced to leave Colombo.
- Arjie witnesses the brutality of the Sinhalese mobs and the helplessness of the Tamil people.
- The family considers leaving Sri Lanka for safety, reflecting the loss of home and belonging.

- “The funny boy you once knew is no more. In his place, there is only a person whose life has been shattered by forces he cannot control.”

- “What you have to understand, Arjie, is that we have no choice. This is our life now.”

Critical Analysis of Funny Boy by Shyam Selvadurai

At the core Funny Boy is Arjie’s journey of self-discovery. Arjie, a young Tamil boy from a middle-class family in Colombo, struggles with his homosexual identity, a topic rarely addressed in Sri Lankan literature at the time of the novel’s publication. Arjie’s early experiences with his family and friends make him aware of how his sense of self does not fit the traditional expectations imposed upon him. His preference for dressing up as a bride in family wedding games is met with confusion and criticism, marking the beginning of his awareness of his difference.

 
Selvadurai masterfully captures Arjie’s internal struggles as he navigates the expectations of masculinity and the norms of the family. His sexuality becomes a significant point of contention within his family, where gender roles are rigidly defined. Arjie’s internalized shame about his desires reflects the cultural and social stigmas surrounding homosexuality.  Selvadurai’s depiction of Arjie’s coming-out process is tender, portraying the confusion and loneliness that accompany the realization of one’s sexual identity.

 
While Arjie’s personal journey is a significant focal point, Funny Boy also explores the impact of the growing ethnic conflict between the Sinhalese and Tamils in Sri Lanka. The novel is set in the years leading up to the devastating civil war, and Selvadurai skillfully weaves in the escalating tensions between the two ethnic groups.

Through Arjie’s experiences and his family’s interactions, the novel depicts the rising political instability. The seemingly secure world of Colombo’s elite begins to unravel, and the underlying animosities between ethnic communities come to the surface. Selvadurai’s portrayal of this tension is subtle yet powerful, shows how personal lives are inextricably linked with the broader political climate. For instance, Arjie’s family, though Tamil, has tried to assimilate into a predominantly Sinhalese society, but they cannot escape the prejudice and violence that eventually engulf the nation.

 The intersection of Arjie’s personal crisis with the ethnic turmoil highlights the theme of displacement and alienation. Just as Arjie feels out of place within his own family due to his sexuality, he and his family also feel marginalized by the broader Sri Lankan society due to their Tamil heritage. Selvadurai draws a parallel between Arjie’s sense of isolation in his personal life and the Tamil community’s experiences of discrimination and violence.

The novel’s ending, which sees Arjie’s family displaced by the violence of the ethnic riots, marks a painful conclusion to his childhood. The loss of his home parallels his loss of innocence, as he is thrust into the harsh realities of both personal and political conflict. Despite the tragedies he experiences, there is a sense of hope as Arjie becomes more confident in his identity, moving from confusion to self-acceptance.