What is art by Leo Tolstoy summary and analysis

 To understand what art really is, we must first stop thinking of it merely as a source of pleasure. Instead, we should see art as an essential part of human life. From this perspective, art appears as one of the most important ways through which human beings communicate with one another.

Every work of art creates a relationship between the artist and the audience, and also among all those who experience the same artwork, whether in the past, present, or future. Just as language connects people by sharing thoughts and ideas, art connects people by sharing feelings. While words transmit thoughts, art transmits emotions.

Art is based on the human ability to feel what others feel. When a person sees or hears another person expressing an emotion, he or she can experience the same emotion. For example, when one person laughs, others may feel happy; when one person cries, others may feel sorrow. Similarly, courage, fear, love, admiration, or sadness expressed by one person can be felt by others. This emotional sharing is the foundation of art.

However, not every emotional reaction is art. Art begins when a person intentionally expresses a feeling in order to make others share that feeling. For instance, when a boy narrates his frightening encounter with a wolf in such a way that listeners feel the same fear, it becomes art. Even if the boy invents the story but successfully makes others feel the fear, it is still art. In the same way, when an artist expresses emotions through painting, sculpture, music, or literature so that others experience those emotions, it is art.

The emotions conveyed through art can be strong or weak, noble or ordinary, joyful or painful. Love, patriotism, devotion, sorrow, courage, humour, calmness, admiration, and many other feelings can all be expressed through art. If the audience is emotionally moved in the way the artist intended, the work qualifies as art.

In simple terms, art is the activity of recreating a felt emotion and transmitting it to others through forms such as words, sounds, colours, or movements. It is a conscious human effort to share inner experiences so that others may feel them too.

Art is not a mysterious expression of beauty, a divine idea, a physical game, or merely the creation of pleasant objects. Above all, it is not just pleasure. Rather, art is a powerful means of uniting people by making them share common feelings. It is essential for both individual growth and human progress.

Just as language allows people to share knowledge and thoughts across generations, art allows people to share emotions across time and space. Through art, people can experience the feelings of others, including those who lived thousands of years ago, and can pass on their own feelings to future generations.

Without the ability to share thoughts through language, humans would live like isolated creatures. Without the ability to share feelings through art, humans would become even more divided and hostile toward one another. Therefore, art is as vital as language itself and is deeply rooted in human life.

I. Answer in two or three sentences

1. Why does Tolstoy compare speech and art?

Tolstoy compares speech and art because both are means of communication among human beings. Speech transmits thoughts, while art transmits feelings, and both help people connect with one another.

2. How does speech allow humans to connect with one another?

Speech enables people to share their thoughts and experiences with others. Through language, humans can understand the ideas of others and pass on their own thoughts across generations.

3. What role does art play in human communication, according to Tolstoy?

According to Tolstoy, art plays the role of transmitting emotions from one person to another. It unites people by making them share the same feelings.

4. What is Tolstoy's definition of art?

Tolstoy defines art as a human activity in which one person consciously expresses feelings through external signs so that others experience the same feelings. Art is the transmission and sharing of emotions.

5. Why does Tolstoy liken a thoughtless person to Kaspar Hauser?

Tolstoy likens a thoughtless person to Kaspar Hauser because, without the ability to share thoughts, a person would live in isolation from human culture and knowledge. Such a person would resemble someone cut off from society and intellectual development.

6. What would happen to humanity if people lacked the ability to share thoughts?

If people lacked the ability to share thoughts, they would live like wild beasts, separated from culture and collective knowledge. Human progress and intellectual development would become impossible.

7. How does Tolstoy argue that art prevents people from becoming 'savage'?

Tolstoy argues that art allows people to share feelings and understand one another emotionally. Without this emotional connection, humans would become more hostile and savage toward each other.

8. What is the danger of living without the capacity to be 'infected by art'?

Without the capacity to be infected by art, people would become emotionally isolated and divided from one another. They would lose empathy and become more hostile and inhuman.

9. In what way does Tolstoy claim art is as important as speech?

Tolstoy claims that art is as important as speech because speech unites people through thoughts, while art unites them through feelings. Both are essential for human life and social harmony.

10. How does the Kaspar Hauser example strengthen Tolstoy's definition of art?

The example of Kaspar Hauser shows that without the ability to share thoughts and feelings, humans would become isolated and uncivilized. It reinforces Tolstoy’s idea that communication through thought and emotion is essential for humanity, and that art is a fundamental human activity.

II. Answer in about 150 words

11. Speech and art as two forms of communication

Tolstoy distinguishes speech and art as two complementary forms of human communication. Speech transmits thoughts and ideas, enabling people to share knowledge and intellectual achievements across generations. Art, on the other hand, transmits feelings and emotions, allowing people to experience the inner life of others. While speech connects minds, art connects hearts. Tolstoy considers both equally important because human life depends not only on intellectual communication but also on emotional understanding. Without speech, humans would lose cultural continuity and rational development; without art, they would lose empathy and emotional unity. Thus, speech and art together sustain human civilization by uniting people intellectually and emotionally.

12. Meaning of the Kaspar Hauser comparison

Tolstoy’s comparison of humans without thought-sharing to wild beasts or Kaspar Hauser reveals his belief that culture and civilization depend on communication. Kaspar Hauser symbolizes a person cut off from human society and intellectual heritage. Without the ability to share thoughts, humans would be deprived of collective knowledge and cultural progress. They would live in isolation, guided only by instinct rather than reason. This comparison shows that Tolstoy views language and shared thought as the foundation of human development. Human identity, culture, and progress exist only because people can transmit ideas across time and society.

13. Art as a safeguard against savagery

Tolstoy argues that art prevents humans from becoming savage by enabling them to share emotions and understand each other’s inner experiences. Through art, people feel love, sorrow, courage, admiration, and devotion expressed by others. This emotional connection creates empathy and mutual understanding. Without art, people would become emotionally isolated and hostile toward one another. Tolstoy suggests that art unites people in common feelings, reducing hatred and separation. For example, music, stories, paintings, and dramas allow individuals to experience the emotions of others. Thus, art functions as a moral and emotional bond that prevents humanity from falling into brutality and hostility.

14. Art and human progress

Tolstoy connects art with the progress and well-being of humanity by showing that art enables the transmission of emotions across time and space. Just as language allows people to inherit the thoughts of previous generations, art allows them to inherit feelings and emotional experiences. Through art, individuals can understand the joys, sufferings, hopes, and fears of others, including people who lived thousands of years ago. This shared emotional life strengthens social unity and moral development. By connecting people emotionally, art contributes to human unity and collective growth. Therefore, Tolstoy sees art not as mere entertainment but as an essential force in the advancement of human civilization.

15. Importance of “infection” of feelings

Tolstoy emphasizes the idea of “infection” because it explains the core function of art. According to him, art occurs when one person’s feelings are transmitted to others so powerfully that they experience the same emotions. This emotional contagion distinguishes art from ordinary emotional expression. If an artist consciously evokes feelings and successfully makes others share them, the work becomes art. The concept of infection shows that art is not defined by beauty or pleasure but by its ability to unite people through shared emotions. Thus, emotional transmission is central to Tolstoy’s definition of art.

16. Kaspar Hauser as a test case

Tolstoy’s reference to Kaspar Hauser serves as a test case for the universality of art. Kaspar Hauser represents a person deprived of social and cultural communication. By mentioning him, Tolstoy illustrates what humans would become without the ability to share thoughts and feelings. This example supports his argument that art is not a luxury but a universal human necessity. It shows that emotional communication through art is essential for social life and human identity. By contrasting civilized humans with isolated figures like Kaspar Hauser, Tolstoy strengthens his claim that art is fundamental to humanity’s existence and purpose.

III. Answer in about 300 words

17. Art as essential as speech

Tolstoy claims that art is as essential to humanity as speech because both are fundamental means of human communication. Speech allows people to share thoughts, knowledge, and ideas, thereby preserving culture and intellectual progress. Art, on the other hand, allows people to share feelings and emotions, creating emotional unity among individuals and communities. Tolstoy argues that without speech, humans would live like wild beasts, disconnected from collective knowledge. Similarly, without art, humans would become emotionally isolated and hostile toward one another.

The example of Kaspar Hauser illustrates the consequences of lacking communication. Kaspar Hauser symbolizes a person separated from society and culture. Tolstoy uses this example to show that without the ability to share thoughts and feelings, human beings would lose their humanity. They would become primitive, isolated, and incapable of social life. Through this comparison, Tolstoy emphasizes that art, like speech, is indispensable for human existence. Art connects people emotionally across time and space, just as speech connects them intellectually. Thus, Tolstoy concludes that art is not merely a source of pleasure but a vital condition of human life and civilization.

18. Evaluation of Tolstoy’s definition of art

Tolstoy defines art as the conscious transmission of feelings from one person to another. This definition challenges traditional aesthetic theories that associate art with beauty, pleasure, or technical skill. According to Tolstoy, art is not necessarily beautiful, pleasurable, or mysterious; it is meaningful only when it successfully communicates emotions. A work of art is judged not by its form or beauty but by its power to “infect” others with the artist’s feelings.

This concept rejects the idea that art is merely the production of pleasing objects or the expression of abstract beauty. Instead, Tolstoy emphasizes art’s social and moral function. Art becomes a means of human unity rather than individual enjoyment. By redefining art as emotional communication, Tolstoy shifts the focus from aesthetics to ethics and human relationships. His theory challenges elitist notions of art and makes it a universal human activity accessible to all.

19. Art, morality, and social harmony

Tolstoy argues that art prevents humanity from falling into savagery and hostility by fostering emotional understanding and empathy. Through art, people experience the feelings of others, such as love, sorrow, courage, devotion, and fear. This shared emotional experience creates bonds among individuals and reduces alienation and conflict. Without art, people would become emotionally disconnected and hostile toward one another.

Tolstoy links art with morality because art cultivates compassion and moral awareness. When people feel the emotions of others through art, they develop sympathy and ethical sensitivity. Art thus contributes to social harmony by uniting people in common feelings. Furthermore, art plays a role in cultural progress by transmitting emotional experiences across generations. By connecting individuals emotionally and morally, art becomes a force for human development and collective well-being. In Tolstoy’s view, art is not a luxury but a moral necessity for civilized society.

20. Tolstoy’s theory and his moral philosophy

Tolstoy’s theory of art reflects his broader philosophical and moral concerns about human unity, empathy, and social responsibility. He rejects aesthetic theories that view art as mere beauty or pleasure because he believes art should serve humanity. For Tolstoy, the value of art lies in its ability to unite people emotionally and morally.

His emphasis on emotional “infection” reveals his belief that true art must foster understanding and compassion among people. Art becomes a moral instrument that strengthens human relationships and promotes social harmony. Tolstoy’s ideas also reflect his critique of elitist art that serves only the privileged. By defining art as a universal human activity, he democratizes art and connects it with ethical and social values.

The Color Purple - Textual comprehension

 

1. Who is the main character of The Color Purple, and who does she write her letters to?

The main character of The Color Purple is Celie, an African American woman who narrates her life through letters. Initially, she writes her letters to God, and later she addresses them to her sister Nettie.

2. What is the name of the woman who helps Celie gain confidence and learn about love?

Shug Avery is the woman who helps Celie gain confidence and discover the true meaning of love and self. Through her affection, guidance and independence, Shug transforms Celie’s understanding of self-worth and emotional freedom.

3. How does Celie's relationship with her abusive husband, Mr....... develop, as is seen in her letters to Nettie?

Celie’s relationship with her abusive husband, Mr. ___ (Albert), begins in violence and oppression but gradually changes over time. Through Celie’s growing self-awareness and Albert’s eventual remorse, their relationship evolves from domination to mutual respect and friendship.

4. In what way does Nettie stay connected to Celie throughout the years, despite being separated?

Nettie stays connected to Celie by writing letters to her over many years while working as a missionary in Africa. Although Mr. ___ hides these letters, they later become the means through which Celie learns the truth about Nettie’s life and their family history.

5. What key object does Celie inherit that symbolizes her empowerment and independence?

The sewing business and the pants Celie designs symbolise her empowerment and independence. Through her tailoring work, Celie gains financial autonomy and a new sense of identity and self-confidence.

II. Paragraph Answers (About 100 words each)

6. Describe Celie's relationship with her sister Nettie and how it influences her development throughout the novel.

Celie’s relationship with her sister Nettie is based on deep emotional attachmentand mutual support. Nettie represents hope, education and moral strength in Celie’s life, especially when Celie suffers abuse and isolation. Although separated physically, Nettie’s letters preserve their bond and sustain Celie’s emotional resilience. When Celie finally reads Nettie’s letters, she gains knowledge about her past, which strengthens her self-awareness. Thus, Nettie’s presence, though distant, plays a crucial role in Celie’s psychological growth and transformation.

7. Shug Avery’s role in Celie’s self-discovery

Shug Avery plays a significant role in Celie’s journey toward self-discovery and self-worth. Unlike others, Shug treats Celie with compassion and respect and encourages her to question oppression by recognising her own value. Shug introduces Celie to emotional intimacy and teaches her that love is not equated with domination or suffering. She also inspires Celie to confront Mr. ___ and leave him. Through Shug’s influence, Celie learns to speak openly, pursue independence, and redefine her identity beyond patriarchal constraints.

8. Oppression and empowerment of women in the novel

Oppression in The Color Purple manifests through domestic violence, racial discrimination, patriarchal control, and social marginalisation. Women like Celie, Sofia, and Shug experience exploitation and silencing in different forms. However, they gradually resist oppression by asserting their voices and forming supportive relationships. Celie’s economic independence, Sofia’s defiance of male authority, and Shug’s unconventional lifestyle illustrate various paths to empowerment. Through freedom, self-expression, and resistance, these women transform suffering into strength and redefine their roles in a patriarchal society.

III. Essay Answers (About 300 words each)

9. Significance of letters in The Color Purple

Letters usually convey the subjective mind with deep emotional aspects. The epistlary structure of the novel remarkably conveys all the inners aspects of the characters. Celie expresses her thoughts, fears and hopes through the letters. At the beginning, she writes to God because she has no one else to confide in. These letters become a private space where she can articulate her suffering and preserve her identity in a world that silences her voice.

As the narrative progresses, the act of letter-writing becomes transformative. When Celie discovers Nettie’s hidden letters, she gains access to knowledge about her sister, her children, and African heritage. This revelation reshapes her understanding of her past and empowers her to challenge Mr. ___’s authority. Nettie’s letters also broaden the novel’s scope by connecting African American experiences with African history and colonial realities.

Moreover, letters function as instruments of emotional survival and resistance. Through writing, Celie gradually develops a sense of self and learns to articulate her desires and grievances. Her shift from writing to God to writing to Nettie symbolises her movement from spiritual dependence to human connection and self-realisation.

10. Role of sisterhood in The Color Purple

Sisterhood is one of the most powerful forces in The Color Purple, challenging patriarchal oppression and enabling women to achieve emotional and social autonomy. The bond between Celie and Nettie exemplifies unconditional love and mutual support. Despite physical separation, their relationship sustains Celie’s hope and identity. Nettie’s letters preserve their connection and provide Celie with knowledge that becomes crucial to her liberation.

Similarly, Celie’s relationship with Shug Avery redefines traditional notions of female companionship. Shug acts as a mentor, lover, and friend, teaching Celie to recognise her worth and resist oppression. Through Shug, Celie learns that love can be liberating rather than oppressive. Their relationship defies social norms by transcending conventional gender roles and heterosexual expectations.

The novel also presents other forms of female solidarity, particularly through characters like Sofia, whose courage and resistance inspire Celie. Together, these relationships create a network of support that counters male dominance and social injustice.

Through sisterhood, women in the novel reclaim their voices, bodies, and identities. Their relationships challenge the patriarchal belief that women must remain submissive and isolated. Instead, Alice Walker portrays sisterhood as a transformative force that enables women to survive oppression and achieve genuine freedom.

The Yellow Wall-Paper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman summary and analysis

 

The Yellow Wall-Paper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman

Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wall-Paper is presented as a series of secret journal entries written by an unnamed female narrator suffering from what her physician-husband describes as “temporary nervous depression — a slight hysterical tendency” . The narrative unfolds during a summer retreat in a secluded ancestral mansion rented by her husband, John, who believes complete rest and isolation will cure her condition.

The narrator begins by describing the house as a large colonial mansion, oddly inexpensive and long unoccupied, which immediately evokes in her a sense of unease. Though she jokingly suggests it might be “a haunted house,” she also admits “there is something queer about it” . John dismisses her intuition, and suggests it's a serene place.

John’s medical authority is absolute: he not only diagnoses her condition but controls every aspect of her daily life — her diet, schedule, movement and intellectual activity. She is strictly forbidden to write, Nevertheless, she continues writing secretly, viewing it as a psychological relief.

Against her wishes, John selects a former nursery at the top of the house as her bedroom. The room has barred windows, rings fixed into the walls, and a heavy bed nailed to the floor, suggests the earlier confinement. The most disturbing feature is the wallpaper. 

She reacts with strong emotions to the wallpaper’s color — “a smouldering unclean yellow” — and its chaotic pattern, which seems to “commit suicide” . Though initially repulsed, her enforced confinement causes her attention to fixate obsessively on the wallpaper.

John refuses to remove or replace it, arguing that if the wallpaper were changed, she would find something else to fear next — the bed, the windows, or the stairs — thereby invalidating her lived experience.

As weeks pass, the narrator’s isolation deepens. She is separated from her baby, whom another caretaker tends, because being with the child makes her nervous. This separation intensifies her guilt and sense of inadequacy as a mother. She feels herself becoming “a comparative burden”.

She begins to notice a secondary pattern beneath the wallpaper’s surface, visible only in certain lights. This shadowy sub-pattern gradually takes the shape of “a strange, provoking, formless sort of figure” . Over time, she becomes convinced that a woman is trapped behind the wallpaper, creeping and stooping, struggling to escape.

The narrator’s obsession intensifies. She studies the wallpaper’s behavior under different lighting conditions and concludes that “the paper changes as the light changes” . By moonlight, the wallpaper appears as bars, imprisoning the woman behind them. She realizes with certainty: “the woman behind shakes it!”.

Soon, the narrator believes there are many women, creeping silently by daylight in the garden, the lanes, and along the hedges. She identifies with them deeply, locking herself in her room during the day to creep secretly, stating: “It must be very humiliating to be caught creeping by daylight!” 

The narrator grows suspicious of John and his sister Jennie, believing they are secretly studying the wallpaper. The wallpaper also emits a pervasive odor, which she describes as “a yellow smell” that creeps through the entire house and even clings to her clothes and hair . This sensory hallucination underscores her psychological collapse.

On the final day, with John away overnight, the narrator locks herself in the nursery, throws the key outside, and begins tearing down the wallpaper to free the trapped woman. She exclaims triumphantly that she and the woman work together: “I pulled and she shook” .

She strips the wallpaper from the walls, crawls along the room following a mysterious floor-smudge that matches her shoulder height, and binds herself symbolically with a rope so she cannot be “put back.” She now fully identifies as the woman who has escaped.

When John finally breaks into the room, he is confronted with the horrifying sight of his wife creeping endlessly around the room, stepping over his unconscious body. She declares:

“I’ve got out at last, in spite of you and Jane! And I’ve pulled off most of the paper, so you can’t put me back!” 

John faints, collapsing in her path. Undisturbed, the narrator continues creeping over him, marking the final, chilling image of complete psychological rupture and ironic liberation.

 

I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences

1. Why is the narrator confined to the upstairs room in the mansion?

The narrator is confined to the upstairs nursery because her husband John, a physician, believes that complete rest, isolation, and fresh air are necessary to cure her “temporary nervous depression.” He chooses the room himself, dismissing her preference for a more pleasant downstairs room, and insists that she must follow his medical judgment without question.

2. What does the yellow wallpaper symbolize in the story?

The yellow wallpaper symbolizes the narrator’s psychological oppression and the restrictive social roles imposed on women. As the story progresses, it also comes to represent her repressed self and the condition of women trapped within patriarchal domestic spaces.

3. How does the narrator's attitude toward the wallpaper change throughout the story?

Initially, the narrator finds the wallpaper merely ugly and irritating, describing its color and pattern with disgust. Gradually, her attention turns into obsession, and she begins to see a woman trapped behind it, ultimately identifying herself with that woman and attempting to tear the wallpaper down.

4. What role does John, the narrator's husband, play in her mental decline?

John plays a central role in the narrator’s mental decline by dismissing her feelings, forbidding her from writing, and enforcing the rest cure without considering her emotional needs. His patronizing attitude and medical authority silence her voice and contribute directly to her psychological breakdown.

II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph

5. Discuss how the setting of the story contributes to the narrator's mental breakdown.

The setting of The Yellow Wall-Paper plays a crucial role in the narrator’s mental deterioration. The isolated colonial mansion removes her from society and intellectual stimulation, while the upstairs nursery confines her physically and psychologically. The barred windows, nailed-down bed, and rings in the walls suggest imprisonment rather than care. Cut off from creative work and companionship, the narrator is left alone with her thoughts, which fixate on the oppressive wallpaper. This claustrophobic environment intensifies her sense of helplessness and accelerates her descent into madness.

6. Analyze the narrative style of The Yellow Wall-Paper and its impact on the reader's understanding of the protagonist's mental state.

The story is told through a first-person journal format, which allows readers direct access to the narrator’s thoughts and emotions. The fragmented entries, shifting tone, and increasing incoherence reflect her deteriorating mental state. Because the narration is subjective and unreliable, readers experience the confusion, obsession, and paranoia along with the narrator, making her psychological collapse immediate and deeply unsettling.

7. Examine the relationship between the narrator and John.

The relationship between the narrator and John is marked by imbalance and control. John treats his wife as a patient rather than an equal partner, dismissing her opinions and infantilizing her through pet names and condescension. Although he believes he is acting out of love, his authority as a husband and physician suppresses her autonomy, making the relationship a central cause of her emotional isolation and breakdown.

8. Discuss the symbolism of the wallpaper in relation to the narrator's psychological state.

The wallpaper symbolizes the narrator’s entrapment within restrictive social and domestic roles. As her mental state worsens, she projects her own repression onto the wallpaper, imagining a woman trapped behind its pattern. The act of tearing down the wallpaper represents her desperate attempt to free herself from psychological confinement, even though this liberation occurs through madness.

III. Essays

9. Critically evaluate the representation of mental illness in The Yellow Wall-Paper. How does Gilman challenge the medical and social treatment of women during the 19th century?

In The Yellow Wall-Paper, Charlotte Perkins Gilman presents mental illness not as an inherent weakness in women, but as a condition worsened—and even created—by oppressive medical and social practices. The narrator’s “nervous depression” is treated through the rest cure, which enforces inactivity, isolation, and silence. Gilman exposes how such treatment denies women intellectual engagement and self-expression, thereby intensifying their suffering.

Through John’s character, Gilman critiques the 19th-century medical establishment, which dismissed women’s emotional experiences as hysteria and relied on rigid authority rather than empathy. The narrator’s gradual descent into madness is portrayed as a logical consequence of repression rather than a natural illness. By showing that enforced rest and obedience destroy rather than heal the narrator, Gilman powerfully challenges both medical misogyny and societal attitudes toward women’s mental health.

10. Explore the theme of confinement in the story, both physical and psychological. How does the narrator's environment mirror her internal struggle?

Confinement is a central theme in The Yellow Wall-Paper, operating on both physical and psychological levels. Physically, the narrator is confined to an upstairs nursery with barred windows and a nailed-down bed, symbolizing imprisonment. Psychologically, she is confined by her husband’s authority, medical prescriptions, and social expectations that deny her autonomy and creativity.

The oppressive environment mirrors her internal struggle as her thoughts become increasingly restricted and obsessive. The woman trapped behind the wallpaper reflects the narrator’s own imprisoned identity. As her environment remains unchanged and inescapable, her mind fractures, illustrating how external confinement produces internal collapse.

11. Discuss The Yellow Wall-Paper as a feminist text. How does it address issues of identity, autonomy, and resistance within the framework of patriarchal oppression?

The Yellow Wall-Paper is a powerful feminist text that exposes the damaging effects of patriarchal control over women’s bodies and minds. The narrator is denied identity and autonomy through her roles as wife and patient, while her creative impulse—writing—is treated as dangerous. John’s authority represents a patriarchal system that silences women under the guise of protection and science.

The narrator’s secret writing and eventual destruction of the wallpaper function as acts of resistance. Although her rebellion culminates in madness, it also represents a refusal to remain submissive. Gilman thus highlights the cost of denying women self-expression and portrays madness as both a protest against and a product of patriarchal oppression.

 

In the Name of Science by Antony van Leeuwenhoek

 

The Chapter Eight, titled "In the Name of Science", from the nonfiction book All in a Drop by Lori Alexander, highlights the bold and curious spirit of Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a self-taught scientist from Delft (Netherlands). This chapter showcases Antony's fearless and unconventional experiments as he challenges widely accepted beliefs of his time-like the idea of spontaneous generation-through detailed observations and simple, yet creative, tests. Despite skepticism from his neighbors, Antony's persistence and dedication to uncover the microscopic world earned him respect and recognition. The chapter captures both the scientific significance and the personal courage behind his groundbreaking discoveries, emphasizing how one man's curiosity helped the world to change perspectives.

 

Antony van Leeuwenhoek, though honored by being inducted into the Royal Society, was not fully trusted by everyone in his hometown of Delft. Some people thought his discoveries were magic or imaginary. However, the Netherlands was a tolerant country, unlike others where new ideas could lead to punishment or death. Because of this freedom, Antony was able to continue his work without fear, ignoring the doubts of his neighbors.

Until then, Antony’s work mainly involved careful observation—looking at samples and recording what he saw. Later, he began conducting simple but unusual experiments. To understand how insects are born, he challenged the common belief in spontaneous generation. By placing lice in a black sock and observing them over time, he proved that insects come from parents, not from dirt or decaying matter.

Antony also studied ants. By opening an anthill, he discovered that ants carry food underground not for themselves, but for their larvae to survive the winter, while adult ants hibernate. This experiment caused him great pain from ant stings.

He also examined dental hygiene. While inspecting his own clean teeth, Antony found a white substance between his molars. Under the microscope, he saw many tiny living creatures. He concluded that people who do not clean their teeth would have even more of these organisms. Testing this idea, he examined a neighbor’s teeth and confirmed his hypothesis.

Over time, Antony’s neighbors accepted his strange behavior, even when he asked for earwax, hair, or nail clippings for his research. His fame spread far beyond Delft, and he became one of the most well-known figures in science.

The tiny creatures he discovered had no name at first. He called them diertgens (little animals), which became animalcules in English. Later, they were called microbes. During Antony’s time, people like him were known as natural philosophers, as the word scientist came into common use only in the late nineteenth century.

 

I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences:

1. Why did some people in Delft doubt Antony's discoveries?

Some people in Delft doubted Antony’s discoveries because they could not see what he claimed to observe through his microscope. To them, his findings seemed like magic or illusions rather than real scientific evidence.

2. Why was the Netherlands a safe place for original thinkers like Antony?

The Netherlands was a tolerant country where people were free to express ideas that challenged traditional beliefs. Unlike other countries where such ideas could lead to imprisonment or death, thinkers like Antony could work and publish without fear.

3. What discovery did Antony make with his socks experiment involving lice?

Through the sock experiment, Antony discovered that insects are born from parents and not through spontaneous generation. He observed that lice laid eggs which later hatched into young lice, proving that insects do not arise from dirt or decaying matter.

4. What conclusion did Antony draw from examining the goo between his teeth?

Antony concluded that the human mouth contains countless tiny living creatures. He also realized that people who do not clean their teeth regularly would have even more of these organisms.

II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph:

5. How did Antony's experiments challenge the common scientific beliefs of his time?

Antony’s experiments challenged the widely accepted belief in spontaneous generation, which held that living organisms arose from nonliving matter. His lice experiment clearly showed that insects reproduce through eggs laid by parent insects. Similarly, his study of ants revealed their organized social behavior and care for larvae, contradicting simplistic views of insects. His observations of microorganisms in the human mouth further expanded scientific understanding of life beyond what was visible to the naked eye.

6. Describe Antony's approach to scientific research. What qualities made him a successful scientist?

Antony’s approach to scientific research was based on careful observation, curiosity, and direct experimentation. He closely examined everyday objects and living organisms and recorded what he saw honestly. His willingness to question accepted beliefs, conduct simple but effective experiments, and persist despite criticism shows his independence of thought and dedication. These qualities made him a successful and pioneering scientist.

7. How did Antony's neighbours' perception of him change over time?

Initially, Antony’s neighbours viewed him with suspicion and doubted the reality of his discoveries. They considered his work strange and his experiments unusual. Over time, however, as his reputation grew and his discoveries gained recognition, they began to accept his odd behavior and cooperated with his research, even providing samples when asked.

III. Essays:

8. Discuss how Antony van Leeuwenhoek's scientific methods and discoveries reflected the spirit of curiosity and innovation during his time.

Antony van Leeuwenhoek’s scientific methods and discoveries strongly reflect the spirit of curiosity and innovation of his age. At a time when most people accepted traditional explanations without question, Antony relied on direct observation and experimentation. He did not depend on established authorities but trusted what he could see through his microscope.

His experiments were simple yet revolutionary. By observing lice reproduction, he disproved the belief in spontaneous generation. His investigation of ants revealed complex social behavior, while his examination of dental matter led to the discovery of microorganisms. These findings expanded the boundaries of human knowledge and revealed an unseen world of life.

Antony’s willingness to examine ordinary materials such as socks, teeth, and earwax shows his deep curiosity about the natural world. His work helped lay the foundation for microbiology and demonstrated that innovation often arises from questioning the familiar and observing carefully.

9. In what ways does Antony's story show the importance of persistence and independent thinking in scientific discovery?

Antony’s story clearly demonstrates that persistence and independent thinking are essential to scientific discovery. Despite skepticism from his neighbors, Antony continued his research without allowing doubt or ridicule to discourage him. He trusted his observations even when others believed his findings were impossible.

His independent thinking is evident in his rejection of spontaneous generation and his belief that living organisms come from existing life. He designed experiments to test his ideas rather than accepting popular opinion. His persistence in observation, experimentation, and documentation eventually led to widespread recognition of his work.

Through patience, curiosity, and confidence in his own reasoning, Antony transformed simple observations into groundbreaking discoveries. His life shows that true scientific progress often requires courage to think differently and determination to continue despite opposition.

 

Karma by Khushwant Singh short summary and question answers

 

The story opens at a railway station where Sir Mohan Lal, a highly anglicised Indian barrister, is waiting for the train in the first-class waiting room. He stands before a cracked and imperfect Indian-made mirror, which he looks at with contempt and superiority. He mocks the mirror as inefficient and dirty, comparing it to India itself. At the same time, he admires his own reflection—his Savile Row suit, Balliol tie, neatly trimmed moustache, and English perfumes—and feels proud of his English manners and education at Oxford. His self-love and sense of superiority are clearly established at the outset of the story.

Sir Mohan calls for a bearer and orders a small drink of whisky. While he drinks and relaxes in the waiting room, his wife Lachmi (Lady Mohan Lal) sits outside on their luggage. Lachmi is described as short, fat, middle-aged, and traditionally dressed in a dirty white sari with a red border. She chews betel leaves and chats freely with railway workers. Unlike her husband, she is simple, unpretentious and comfortable with her Indian identity.

Lachmi asks a coolie where the zenana (women’s) compartment is and decides to travel there instead of first class. She explains to the coolie that her husband is a barrister and a “vizier” ( High official ) who travels first class and mingles with English officers, while she is only a native woman who does not know English or English manners. She eats her simple meal of chapatis and mango pickle, belches loudly, washes at the public tap, and thanks the gods for a satisfying meal—actions that sharply contrast with Sir Mohan’s refined, artificial behaviour.

As Lachmi waits in the zenana compartment, the story shifts back to Sir Mohan’s inner thoughts. He reflects proudly on his five years in England, where he adopted English habits, manners, and speech. He feels deep contempt for India and Indians, including his own wife. He recalls English life fondly—Oxford colleges, sports, dinners and feels that those five years were far more meaningful than his long life in India. His marriage appears empty and mechanical, marked by brief and joyless encounters.

Sir Mohan imagines how he will impress English passengers on the train. He plans to sit quietly with The Times, wear his Balliol tie, and offer Scotch and English cigarettes to attract conversation. He believes Englishmen will admire him for his polished manners and Oxford education.

When the bearer informs him that his luggage has been placed in a first-class compartment, Sir Mohan walks there with great dignity. He is disappointed to find the compartment empty but sits down and opens his newspaper. Soon, he notices two drunken English soldiers searching for seats. Hoping to impress them, Sir Mohan decides to welcome them into his compartment, even though they are entitled only to second class.

However, the soldiers see Sir Mohan not as an English gentleman but as a “nigger” (a racial slur). They rudely order him to get out, shouting “Reserved!” and “Army Fauj.” Sir Mohan protests in his Oxford-accented English, but the soldiers do not recognize or respect him. They throw his belongings—his suitcase, bedding, thermos(bottle), briefcase, and even The Times—onto the platform.

When Sir Mohan angrily protests and threatens to call the guard, one soldier slaps him across the face. As the train starts moving, they physically throw him out of the compartment. Sir Mohan falls onto his luggage, shocked and humiliated, unable to speak. The soldiers mock him with a cheerful “Toodle-oo!”

As the train moves away, Sir Mohan stands frozen on the platform, staring helplessly at the passing compartments. In the last zenana compartment, Lachmi sits comfortably. Her face is visible in the light, her diamond nose-ring shining. As the train leaves the station, she spits a stream of red betel juice across the platform—symbolically marking the final moment of the story.

The story ends with a powerful irony: the man who rejected his Indian identity and worshipped English culture is brutally humiliated by the English, while the simple, unashamed Indian woman travels peacefully and safely. The title “Karma” reflects the idea that Sir Mohan’s pride, self-hatred, and false sense of superiority ultimately lead to his downfall.

 

 

Activity

1. Irony and Dialogue as a Critique of Social Snobbery and Colonial Mentality

Khushwant Singh uses irony and dialogue clearly to expose the hollowness of social snobbery(pride) and colonial mentality in Karma. The strongest irony lies in Sir Mohan Lal’s self-image versus how he is actually treated. He admires himself in the mirror, calling himself “distinguished, efficient — even handsome,” while dismissing India as “inefficient, dirty, indifferent.” Ironically, the mirror he mocks reflects his own moral and cultural emptiness.

Dialogue further sharpens this critique. Sir Mohan’s anglicised Hindustani (“Koi Hai!”, “Ek Chota”) and his rehearsed Oxford accent are meant to signal refinement, but they fail completely when he confronts the English soldiers. His protest—“I say, I say, surely”—sounds English to him, but the soldiers respond with brutal racism: “Get the nigger out.” This dialogue reveals the harsh colonial truth that imitation of English culture does not earn respect. The final irony is that Lachmi, whom Sir Mohan despises as “vulgar,” travels safely, while he is violently thrown out of the first-class compartment.

 

2. Meaning of the Term ‘Anglophile’

An Anglophile is a person who admires, loves, or idealizes England, English culture and English ways of life, often to the extent of undervaluing or rejecting their own native culture. Sir Mohan Lal is a classic Anglophile, as he worships English manners, language, clothing, and social habits.

Text-Based Comprehension Exercises

I. Answer in Two or Three Sentences

1. Who is Sir Mohan Lal, and how does he view himself?

Sir Mohan Lal is an Indian barrister educated at Oxford who strongly identifies with English culture. He views himself as refined, superior, and almost English, believing that his manners, dress, and speech place him above other Indians.

2. Why does Sir Mohan Lal prefer to travel in the first-class compartment?

Sir Mohan Lal prefers first-class travel because it symbolizes status, prestige and proximity to English officers. He believes it will give him opportunities to impress Englishmen through his manners, education, and possessions like The Times and Scotch.

3. How is Lady Lal portrayed in contrast to her husband?

Lady Lal is portrayed as simple, traditional, and rooted in Indian culture, while Sir Mohan Lal is artificial and anglicised. She is comfortable with her identity, whereas her husband is ashamed of his Indianness.

4. What role does irony play in the ending of the story?

Irony plays a decisive role when Sir Mohan Lal, who worships English culture, is brutally humiliated by English soldiers. Meanwhile, Lachmi, whom he considers inferior, travels peacefully, highlighting the failure of colonial mimicry.

5. What is the significance of the title Karma?

The title Karma signifies poetic justice. Sir Mohan Lal’s arrogance, self-hatred, and blind admiration of colonial power lead directly to his humiliation and downfall.

II. Answer in a Paragraph

6. Describe the relationship between Sir Mohan Lal and Lady Lal

The relationship between Sir Mohan Lal and Lady Lal is emotionally distant and unequal. Sir Mohan treats his wife with contempt, embarrassment, and indifference, seeing her as crude and uneducated. He visits her only briefly at night and communicates with her through commands rather than affection. Lachmi, on the other hand, accepts her role passively and seeks companionship through gossip with strangers, revealing the loneliness and neglect she experiences within the marriage.

7. How does Khushwant Singh use characterization to criticize colonial attitudes?

Khushwant Singh uses Sir Mohan Lal as a satirical representation of the colonised subject who internalises colonial values. His obsession with English manners, language, and approval exposes the psychological damage caused by colonial rule. In contrast, Lachmi’s earthy realism and cultural rootedness highlight the dignity of indigenous identity. Through these contrasting characters, Singh criticizes the colonial attitude that equates worth with whiteness and Westernisation.

8. Discuss the use of setting and symbols in the story

The railway station serves as a symbolic setting where different classes, cultures, and identities collide. The first-class compartment represents colonial privilege and false aspiration, while the zenana compartment symbolizes marginalised yet secure indigenous spaces. Objects like The Times, Scotch, English cigarettes, and the Balliol tie symbolize Sir Mohan’s borrowed identity. The cracked mirror at the beginning reflects both physical decay and Sir Mohan’s fractured self-image.

III. Essays

9. Examine how Karma critiques the colonial mindset through the character of Sir Mohan Lal

Karma presents a sharp critique of the colonial mindset by exposing the psychological slavery of colonised elites. Sir Mohan Lal embodies the Anglophile Indian who believes that English education and manners can erase racial and cultural boundaries. His contempt for India and Indians reflects internalised colonial racism. However, his violent rejection by English soldiers reveals the illusion at the heart of colonial mimicry. Singh demonstrates that colonial power structures do not reward imitation but reinforce racial hierarchies. Sir Mohan’s humiliation exposes the emptiness of colonial aspirations and the tragic cost of cultural self-denial.

10. Explore the theme of identity and cultural alienation in Karma

Karma powerfully explores identity and cultural alienation through the contrasting lives of Sir Mohan Lal and Lachmi. Sir Mohan is alienated from his own culture, language, and people, yet he is never accepted by the English. His identity is fragmented—neither fully Indian nor English. Lachmi, though socially marginalised, remains culturally whole and emotionally secure. The story suggests that true self-worth comes from self-acceptance, not imitation. Through this contrast, Khushwant Singh exposes the tragic consequences of rejecting one’s roots in pursuit of colonial approval.

 

The Self-Unseeing by Thomas Hardy summary and question answers

 

Thomas Hardy’s “The Self-Unseeing” is a deeply retrospective poem that reflects memory and loss. The poem is autobiographical in impulse and is widely understood to recall Hardy’s childhood home at Higher Bockhampton and the memory of his parents - especially his mother, Jemima Hardy.

 

Here is the ancient floor,

Footworn and hollowed and thin,

Here was the former door

Where the dead feet walked in.

 

She sat here in her chair,

Smiling into the fire;

He who played stood there,

Bowing it higher and higher.

 

Childlike, I danced in a dream;

Blessings emblazoned that day;

Everything glowed with a gleam;

Yet we were looking away!

The poem opens with an image of the “ancient floor” immediately establishes a sense of historical depth and continuity. The floor becomes a material witness to the past. Hardy frequently uses domestic objects as repositories of memory, transforming ordinary spaces into emotional symbols. The floor is not merely old; it has been shaped by repeated human presence. The “former door” symbolizes transition—between rooms, between lives, and ultimately between the past and the present. 

The feet that once entered with life now belong to the dead, reinforcing the poem’s tone of elegy and his style of tragic realism.

The speaker animates the memory by reconstructing a domestic scene. The simple, almost conversational tone reflects the intimacy of the recollection. The chair, like the floor, becomes a symbol of habitual presence, now emptied by death. The fire suggests warmth, comfort, and domestic harmony. The woman’s smile evokes quiet happiness.

 

The identity of “He” is understated, possibly Hardy’s father, who was known to be a musician. The vague phrasing reflects the distance imposed by time and memory. The act of playing suggests art, harmony, and emotional expression within the family unit.

 The violin bow rising as the music intensifies. The repetition of “higher” implies emotional elevation.

 

The speaker introduces himself as a child, emphasizing innocence and unselfconscious joy. The phrase “in a dream” suggests the hazy, idealized quality of memory. The dance is spontaneous, unreflective—an embodiment of living fully without awareness of future loss.

 

The word “emblazoned” conveys brightness and permanence, ironically contrasting with the speaker’s failure to recognize those blessings at the time. 

“Everything glowed with a gleam;”

This line heightens the nostalgic luminosity of the memory. The repetition of light imagery (“glowed,” “gleam”) suggests an almost sacred aura, transforming a mundane family scene into a moment of quiet memory.

“Yet we were looking away!”

The poem culminates in its philosophical revelation. The exclamatory tone conveys regret and belated insight. “Looking away” signifies emotional unawareness—the failure to recognize happiness while it exists. This line perfectly encapsulates Hardy’s concept of “self-unseeing”: humanity’s tragic inability to value the present until it has irretrievably passed.

 

I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences

1. What is the central theme of The Self-Unseeing?

The central theme of The Self-Unseeing is the human tendency to remain unaware of the true value of happiness and affection while experiencing them. Hardy reflects on how moments of warmth and family love are often recognized as precious only in retrospect, after they have been lost.

 

2. How does Hardy use imagery to evoke emotion in the poem?

Hardy uses vivid domestic imagery such as the “ancient floor,” the “former door,” and the glowing fire to evoke a sense of intimacy and loss. These concrete images transform an ordinary household scene into a deeply emotional memory, highlighting the contrast between past warmth and present emptiness.

 

3. Why is the poem titled The Self-Unseeing?

The poem is titled The Self-Unseeing because it refers to the speaker’s failure to recognize the significance of happiness and familial affection while they were present. Only later, through memory, does the speaker become aware of the emotional richness of those moments.

 

II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph

4. How does Hardy contrast the past and present in the poem?

Hardy contrasts the past and present by placing the speaker physically in the present while mentally revisiting a vibrant scene from the past. The present is marked by emptiness and silence, symbolized by the worn floor and the absence of living figures, whereas the past is filled with warmth, music, movement, and familial harmony. This contrast intensifies the sense of loss and emphasizes how life and joy have been replaced by memory and absence.

 

5. What role does memory play in the speaker's understanding of the scene described in the poem?

Memory plays a crucial role in shaping the speaker’s understanding of the scene, as it allows him to recognize the emotional value of the past only after it has vanished. Through memory, ordinary domestic moments are transformed into symbols of deep affection and happiness. The poem suggests that memory brings both insight and sorrow, as awareness arrives too late to be relived.

III. Essay

6. Explore how Thomas Hardy conveys themes of loss and appreciation in The Self-Unseeing.

In The Self-Unseeing, Thomas Hardy poignantly conveys the themes of loss and belated appreciation through simple domestic imagery and reflective narration. The poem recalls a childhood memory set in the speaker’s family home, where warmth, music, and affection once existed. However, these moments are revisited only after the people involved have died, turning living joy into silent remembrance.

Hardy’s depiction of physical objects such as the “ancient floor” and the “former door” emphasizes the passage of time and the persistence of material surroundings even as human lives fade away. These objects become silent witnesses to past happiness, intensifying the sense of loss in the present. The contrast between the lively past—marked by music, dancing, and firelight—and the empty present reinforces the emotional distance between what once was and what remains.

At the same time, Hardy highlights the tragedy of unrecognized happiness. The speaker recalls that “everything glowed with a gleam,” yet admits that they were “looking away.” This confession reveals the poem’s central irony: the blessings of love and togetherness were present but unnoticed. Appreciation comes only through memory, making it inseparable from regret.

Ultimately, Hardy suggests that human beings are often “self-unseeing,” incapable of valuing life’s quiet joys while living them. The poem stands as a gentle yet profound meditation on how loss sharpens perception and how memory becomes the only means through which appreciation is fully realized.