Contributions of I.A. Richards, Cleanth Brooks, and John Crowe Ransom

 

I.A. Richards, Cleanth Brooks, and John Crowe Ransom were pivotal figures in 20th-century literary criticism, each contributes unique methods and approaches that reshaped the field. Their insights largely laid the groundwork for what came to be known as “New Criticism,” which emphasizes a close and careful reading of texts, isolating them from extraneous influences, and considering them as self-contained works of art. 

 

I.A. Richards

 

I.A. Richards is widely regarded as one of the founding figures of modern literary criticism. His work emphasized the importance of how readers respond to texts and introduced several critical concepts:

 

The Concept of Practical Criticism: Richards is perhaps best known for his book Practical Criticism (1929), in which he developed an experimental approach. He gave students a series of poems without the author’s name or context and asked them to analyze the texts purely on their own terms. This method exposed biases and unexamined assumptions readers bring to texts, which promotes a purely objective interpretation.

 

Psychological Approach: In Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) and Science and Poetry (1926), Richards explored how literature affects the reader psychologically. He proposed that poetry fulfills psychological needs by balancing conflicting impulses, a theory based on his belief in the integration of emotion and intellect within the literary experience. This perspective made literary study a way to understand human psychology, not just aesthetics.

 

Close Reading: Richards advocated for close, analytical reading as a means to uncover the nuanced structure of a text, especially its language and imagery. This focus on the text’s internal logic and form laid the foundation for the close reading techniques central to New Criticism, shaping an entire generation of literary study.

 

 

Cleanth Brooks

 

Cleanth Brooks, a key figure in the development of New Criticism, emphasized the organic unity of a text and argued against reading literature as a reflection of historical or biographical factors. His work, alongside Robert Penn Warren, established a distinctive method for interpreting literature:

 

The Well-Wrought Urn: In his influential work The Well-Wrought Urn (1947), Brooks argues that a poem should be seen as a self-contained structure of meaning. He critiques “paraphrase” as a way of simplifying poems into mere summaries of content. Instead, he proposed that poems communicate through an intricate web of language, irony and paradox.

 

Paradox and Irony: Brooks introduced the idea that paradox and irony are central to understanding poetic language. He argued that poetry often holds opposing ideasby producing a rich and complex meaning that reflects the ambiguities and contradictions inherent in life. This approach encouraged readers to focus on how literary techniques (such as metaphor and symbolism) contribute to the poem’s deeper significance.

 

Organic Unity: Brooks believed that all elements of a literary work – themes, symbols, structure, and language – interact harmoniously to create a unified whole. This concept of organic unity suggested that every element of the text contributes to its overarching meaning, an idea that profoundly shaped the way literary analysis approached poems and other literary forms.

 

 

John Crowe Ransom

 

John Crowe Ransom, often considered the father of New Criticism, played a significant role in promoting an objective and formalist approach to literature. His theoretical framework placed him at the heart of this movement:

 

Criticism, Inc.: In his influential essay Criticism, Inc. (1937), Ransom argued for a more scientific and methodical approach to literary criticism. He criticized academic criticism for being overly historical or biographical, advocating instead for a focus on the structure, language, and intrinsic beauty of the work. Ransom’s push for an academically rigorous, objective approach influenced subsequent generations to approach texts as independent, self-sufficient artifacts.

 

The Concept of Structure and Texture: Ransom introduced the distinction between "structure" (the underlying ideas and themes in a text) and "texture" (the specific language, tone, and imagery). He believed that the true richness of literature lies in the texture – the details of its language and style – which gives a text its aesthetic beauty. This approach underscored his commitment to a close reading that paid careful attention to a text’s language.

 

The New Criticism Anthology: Ransom edited The New Criticism (1941), which brought together essays that defined this movement. The anthology established New Criticism as a formal school of thought and provided a framework for analyzing literature in a way that could be widely taught and adopted.

Biographia Literaria by Samuel Taylor Coleridge - Summary and analysis

 

In his work Biographia Literaria, Samuel Taylor Coleridge distinguishes between the concepts of fancy and imagination, which he sees as two separate creative faculties. Coleridge believed that imagination was a powerful, unifying force that is essential to artistic creation, while fancy was a lesser, associative ability that involves bringing together images without a true act of creation. This distinction is central to Romantic philosophy and Coleridge’s own literary theory.

 Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher is known for his close friendship and poetic collaboration with William Wordsworth. He is also considered as the founder the English romantic movement along with Wordsworth.  

 The Biographia Literaria an autobiography in discourse by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which he published in 1817. It was one of Coleridge’s main critical studies. In this work, he discussed the elements of writing.

Poetry is indeed a creative activity according to Coleridge. It is the product of imagination. Fancy and imagination are considered as the two manifestations of the creative pursuit. It is the product of an artistic mind and not at all a copy of the original. It makes the familiar strange and the strange familiar. 

 

Primary Imagination

Coleridge describes the primary imagination as “the living power and prime agent of all human perception.” It is the natural ability that everyone has to perceive the world around them and to make sense of it. Coleridge considers this a spontaneous and divine faculty.

 

This faculty allows people to take in and understand their experiences, though not in an entirely conscious way. It operates subconsciously, connecting the individual mind to the world.

 

Example: When we look at a sunset, the primary imagination helps us perceive its colors and shapes, allowing us to experience and understand its beauty without actively trying to create anything new from it.

 

Secondary Imagination

Coleridge defines secondary imagination as an echo of the primary imagination, but it differs in that it requires conscious effort and will. He calls it “a synthetic and magical power,” as it enables the artist or poet to reshape and recreate their experiences, by filling them with personal meaning and depth. This faculty transforms raw experience into artistic creation. It is a unifying force, one that doesn’t merely replicate reality but adds emotional and intellectual depth to it.

 

A poet may see the sunset but use the secondary imagination to shape it into a powerful metaphor for something beyond the physical sight, perhaps using it as a symbol of the fleeting nature of time.

 

example from the poem ode to nightingale by John Keats:

Away! away! for I will fly to thee,

         Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards,

But on the viewless wings of Poesy,

         Though the dull brain perplexes and retards:

Already with thee! tender is the night,

         And haply the Queen-Moon is on her throne,

                Cluster'd around by all her starry Fays;

                        But here there is no light,

         Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown

                Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways.

 

I cannot see what flowers are at my feet,

         Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs,

But, in embalmed darkness, guess each sweet

         Wherewith the seasonable month endows

The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild;

         White hawthorn, and the pastoral eglantine;

                Fast fading violets cover'd up in leaves;

                        And mid-May's eldest child,

         The coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine,

                The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.

 

In Xanadu did Kubla Khan

A stately pleasure-dome decree:

Where Alph, the sacred river, ran

Through caverns measureless to man

   Down to a sunless sea.

 

 

Fancy

In contrast to imagination, fancy is seen as a lower, more mechanical faculty. Coleridge describes it as “a mode of memory,” which does not create but merely rearranges what is already there. Fancy is not transformative but associative, connecting ideas and images that are already known.

 

Fancy is decorative rather than creative. It relies on superficial connections between objects and images, lacks the depth and unifying power of imagination.

 

Example: In poetry, fancy would be seen in the use of stock images, similes, or metaphors that don’t provide any new insight. If a poet describes the sunset simply as “red as a rose,” this is a product of fancy, where a common image is used in a predictable way.

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In Biographia Literaria, Samuel Taylor Coleridge presents a deeply philosophical view of poetry and the role of the poet. His ideas contribute to the Romantic belief that poetry arises from a unique, imaginative process and that the poet occupies a special place within society, being able to connect with deeper truths through creativity.

 

Poetry as a Product of Imagination

For Coleridge, poetry is the product of the secondary imagination, a faculty that goes beyond mere imitation or replication of reality. This secondary imagination is an “echo” of the primary imagination, which he describes as “the living power and prime agent of all human perception.”

 

The poet, through secondary imagination, transforms ordinary experience into something profound, giving it new life and meaning. Poetry, then, is not simply about describing the world but creates an idealized version of reality, unified and resonant with deeper significance.

 

 

Poetry as the Union of Opposites

Coleridge views poetry as a form that synthesizes opposites: the finite with the infinite, the known with the unknown, and the ideal with the real. This unifying power is what gives poetry its depth and beauty.

 

This balance of contrasts is a central feature of Coleridge’s view of poetic creation. The poet uses imagination to bring together elements that might seem contradictory. Coleridge describes poetry as the “balance or reconciliation of opposite or discordant qualities,” and he believes that it is through this balancing act that poetry achieves its unique power to evoke emotions and convey complex truths.

 

The Poet as a “Chosen” Individual

Coleridge describes the poet as a unique individual, one capable of perceiving and communicating truths that others might not see. The poet, therefore, has a sensitive soul that can experience a heightened form of existence. The poet is often a visionary, someone capable of glimpsing an idealized reality and articulating it in ways that resonate universally. Coleridge’s conception of the poet aligns with the Romantic view of the artist as a kind of seer or prophet. Coleridge asserts that “the poet, distinguished from the philosopher, is one who, in addition to a specific talent, has acquired a habit of mind and feeling, of spiritualizing and elevating all that he perceives.” it underscores the idea that poets possess a special sensitivity that allows them to see beyond the surface of things.

Poetry as the Expression of Universal Truths

According to Coleridge, true poetry conveys universal truths that resonate with readers across time and place. Poetry goes beyond the mere personal and particular; it speaks to common human experiences, emotions, and insights. Coleridge argues that poetry should be able to “awaken the mind’s attention from the lethargy of custom.” In this way, poetry can transform the ordinary by offering readers new insights and inspiring a deeper understanding of life.

Coleridge writes, “Its immediate object is pleasure, not truth; but truth is the ultimate end of all true poetry.” This means that while poetry is intended to be pleasurable, its true purpose is to reveal truths about existence, thus combining beauty with knowledge.

The Role of Emotion and “Poetic Faith”

Coleridge believes that poetry should evoke a powerful emotional response in readers, bringing them into a state of “poetic faith”—a willingness to suspend disbelief and accept the imaginative vision presented by the poet.

 

This state of mind, where the reader becomes immersed in the poem and accepts its imaginative premises, is crucial to the experience of poetry. Poetry, therefore, relies on the reader’s ability to engage emotionally and intellectually with the poetic vision.

 

Coleridge introduces the concept of “the willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith.” This suspension of disbelief allows readers to experience the poem’s imaginative world fully.

In his poem Kubla Khan, Coleridge exemplifies many of these theories. The poem’s rich imagery and dreamlike quality invite readers into an imaginative realm that feels both mysterious and profound, blending reality with fantasy. The poet’s use of secondary imagination turns a dream into a complex vision of an exotic world. Kubla Khan invites the reader to experience “poetic faith” through its vision of a paradise where human creativity and nature merge.

A Passage to India by E.M. Forster critical analysis

 

Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet,
Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God's great Judgment Seat;

    --- The Ballad of East and West by Rudyard Kipling

A Passage to India (1924) is widely regarded as one of E.M. Forster's greatest novels, which analyses the historical condition of British colonialism in India, the cultural and racial tensions between the colonizers and the colonized, and the challenges of human connection across cultural divides. The novel is set during the British Raj and revolves around the friendship and misunderstandings between an Indian doctor, Aziz, and his British friends, Mrs. Moore and Cyril Fielding.

   At the core the novel lies a sharp critique of British colonial rule and its impact on both colonizers and colonized. Forster portrays the rigidly hierarchical structures that uphold the British Empire, making genuine relationships between British and Indians almost impossible. Aziz's trial becomes a metaphor for the cultural misunderstandings and power imbalances between the two groups. The British, represented by characters such as Ronny Heaslop and the club members, hold deeply established racial prejudices, while the Indians are seen as victims of this institutionalized racism.

   Forster critiques the British administration in India as being built on fear and arrogance, highlighting the difficulties of communication across cultural boundaries. Even the virtuous characters like Mrs. Moore and Fielding struggle to overcome these barriers. The failed friendship between Aziz and Fielding symbolizes the greater failure of intercultural understanding under colonialism.

   A central theme in the novel is the possibility of friendship between individuals of different races and cultures. Forster suggests that personal relationships, based on mutual respect and understanding, might transcend the barriers of colonialism. However, the novel shows that such connections are fragile and constantly threatened by external political and social forces.

   Dr. Aziz and Cyril Fielding’s friendship is emblematic of this tension. While they form a bond of mutual respect, their relationship eventually collapses under the weight of colonial suspicion, racial prejudice, and cultural differences. In the final chapter, Forster makes it clear that under British rule, true friendship between an Indian and a British person cannot survive.

   Religion and spirituality play an important role in A Passage to India. The novel contrasts three main religious groups: Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Each of these religious traditions is portrayed as shaping the characters' worldviews and their approaches to life and society.

   Hinduism, particularly in the figure of Professor Godbole, is presented as a unifying, all-encompassing force that seeks harmony among diverse peoples. Islam, represented by Aziz, is portrayed as vibrant but also isolated due to its minority status in India. Christianity, embodied by the British colonizers, is often shown as rigid and unyielding. Forster wants to emphasize the fact the Indian culture can strongly preserve the sense of diversity.

   The Marabar Caves, which form the novel’s symbolic core, represent a kind of spiritual void or mystery that transcends all religions. The echo in the caves serves as a metaphor for the existential uncertainty and the breakdown of communication between people, religions, and cultures. The caves challenge the characters' religious beliefs and their understanding of reality.

   The Marabar Caves are one of the most significant symbols in A Passage to India. They represent the incomprehensibility and mystery of India, not only to the British but also to the Indians themselves. The caves have a profound psychological impact on the characters, especially on Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested, who find themselves confronted with the emptiness and ambiguity that the caves evoke.

   The caves serve as a metaphor for the larger cultural and existential crisis at the heart of the novel. The darkness inside the cave symbolically signifies inherent darkness of the characters.  For Mrs. Moore, they provoke a spiritual crisis, leading her to withdraw from life and become disillusioned with her earlier belief in the possibility of reconciliation between the British and the Indians. For Adela, the caves trigger her hallucination of an assault, leading to Aziz’s false accusation and subsequent trial, which serves as the novel’s climax.

   The ending of A Passage to India is notably ambiguous. Aziz and Fielding meet again and re - establish their friendship , with Aziz proclaiming that only after the British leave India can they be friends again. Forster refuses to provide a clear resolution to the novel's central conflicts, leaving the reader with a sense of uncertainty about the future of Anglo-Indian relations.

   The novel's portrayal of women, particularly Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested, raises important questions about gender, race, and colonialism. Mrs. Moore, despite being a sympathetic character who initially believes in the possibility of harmony between cultures, is ultimately overwhelmed by her experience in the caves. Her spiritual disillusionment reflects the broader failure of the British characters to understand India.

   Adela, on the other hand, represents the liberal, reformist attitude that seeks to do good in India but is ultimately misguided. Her false accusation against Aziz stems from a combination of cultural misunderstanding and personal psychological crisis. Her false accusation towards Dr.Aziz can be considered as the deep seated prejudice towards Indians.  Both women’s experiences reflect the novel’s larger critique of British colonialism, which not only oppresses Indians but also distorts the lives of the colonizers themselves.

   The novel’s structure is also significant, divided into three parts—“Mosque,” “Caves,” and “Temple”—each representing different stages in the characters’ relationships and their encounters with India. The first part, “Mosque,” symbolizes the possibility of friendship and understanding. “Caves” represents the crisis and breakdown of these relationships, while “Temple” offers a tentative hope for reconciliation, though this hope remains largely unrealized.