Contributions of Aristotle in literary criticism
Aristotle spent 20 years studying under Plato at Athens. His reputation lies on the much celebrated critical work The poetics. He was the tutor of Alexander the great.
Poetics is a treatise of about fifty pages containing 26 small chapters. It is the compiled version of his lectures. The first four chapters and the twenty fifth are devoted to poetry, fifth chapter in general explains comedy, epic and tragedy, the following 14 chapters are exclusively dedicated to tragedy, the next three to poetic diction, the next two to epic poetry and the last one is the comparison of epic poetry and tragedy. Aristotle’s main concern thus lies on tragedy.
“Tragedy,” says Aristotle, “ Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions..”
Aristotle asserts that tragedy is a form of imitation, but not a mere copy of reality. It imitates human actions, emotions, and events that are serious and meaningful. For Aristotle, art imitates life, but it does so in a way that selects, organizes, and intensifies reality to reveal universal truths. In Hamlet by William Shakespeare, the action imitates the downfall of Prince Hamlet due to fate and his own tragic flaws. Though fictional, it reflects universal human concerns fate, procrastination, guilt, and moral responsibility.
Tragedy deals with significant ethical, social, or political issues. The action must have a beginning, middle, and end, a coherent and self-contained plot. The story should be of sufficient scale or importance to arouse emotional engagement. It should not be trivial. Shakespeare’s Macbeth is about a man driven by ambition who murders a king and suffers the psychological and moral consequences. The plot is complete and serious, with royal politics, prophecy, murder, and guilt forming the magnitude of the drama.
Aristotle emphasizes the use of poetic language, ornamented with rhetorical devices, meter, and occasionally song (as in the chorus of Greek tragedy). The language should be elevated and suited to the characters and the situation. The chorus in Antigone uses lyrical poetry to comment on the action, elevate the tone, and express communal emotions and moral reflection.
Unlike epic poetry, which tells a story through narration (as in Homer), tragedy shows the story through action and dialogue. The audience witnesses events unfolding in real time rather than hearing them described.
Two central emotional effects of tragedy are:
Pity for the tragic hero, who suffers undeservedly. Fear that such suffering might happen to us or anyone. These emotions are crucial because they engage the audience emotionally and prepare them for the final outcome. In Othello, we pity Othello, who is noble and loving but tragically misled. We fear the destructive power of jealousy and manipulation, recognizing how fragile trust can be.
Catharsis is a key term and one of the most debated aspects of Aristotle’s theory. Though Aristotle does not define it explicitly in Poetics, it is generally understood to mean:
Purgation: the release of pent-up emotions.
Purification: a cleansing or refining of emotional
responses
Catharsis is the emotional and moral resolution that tragedy brings. The audience, having felt intense emotions, is left with a sense of emotional balance or philosophical insight.
The six constituent parts of a tragedy
1.Plot - mythos
2.Character - ethos
3.Thought - dianoia
4.Diction - lexis
5. Sectacle - opsis
6. Song - melos
Aristotle finds six constituent
parts in tragedy. They are: Plot, character, thought, diction,
song/music and spectacle. Plot means the sequential arrangement of incidents
in a logical and coherent way. It can be considered as the most important
element thus, known as the soul of tragedy. Aristotle says: “without action
there cannot be a tragedy; there may be without character (humans)’. Character,
he says, determines men’s qualities. The performer of the actions. Thought
refers to what the character thinks or feels. It reveals itself in speech. As
plot imitates action, character imitates men, so thought imitates men’s mental
and emotional reactions according to the circumstances. He also employs the
medium diction. By diction he meant the appropriate selection and use of
artistically enhanced language. Or it is the objectification of thought, the
vehicle through which thought finds expression. Spectacle and music are the
parts of stage equipments. But both constitute the manner in which the tragedy
is presented to the audience.
Tragic Hero.
According to Aristotle, the ideal
tragic hero should be good but neither too bad not too perfect. He should be a
man whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depriving (denial of truth
and values) but by some error or frailty. This error is hamartia or the tragic
flaw. For example, in ‘Hamlet’, it is his procrastination or inability to take
action that leads to his down-fall. It is not a deliberate vice but flaw of
characters and it makes the play tragic one. One common form of hamartia in
Greek tragedy was ‘Hubris’ that is the pride or overweening self confidence
which leads a protagonist to disregard or violate an important moral law.
Aristotle's concept of the tragic hero is a fundamental aspect of his theory of tragedy outlined in his work Poetics. According to Aristotle, a tragic hero is a character of noble stature and outstanding qualities who possesses a fatal flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall. The tragic hero undergoes a reversal of fortune (peripeteia) and experiences a moment of recognition or realization (anagnorisis) about their own role in their downfall. Despite their flaws and mistakes, the audience experiences catharsis, a purging of emotions, through witnessing the hero's suffering.
Noble Stature: The tragic hero is typically a person of high rank, such as a king, prince, or nobleman. Their position in society commands respect and admiration from others.
Hamartia (Tragic Flaw): This is the character flaw or error in judgment that leads to the hero's downfall. It could be hubris (excessive pride), ambition, jealousy, or some other character flaw. The tragic flaw is integral to the hero's personality and contributes to the development of the plot.
Reversal of Fortune (Peripeteia): The tragic hero experiences a sudden change of circumstances, often from a position of prosperity to one of adversity. This reversal is a crucial turning point in the plot and marks the beginning of the hero's downfall.
Recognition (Anagnorisis): This is the moment when the tragic hero realizes their own role in their downfall. It involves a moment of self-awareness or insight into their own flaws and mistakes. This recognition often comes too late to change the hero's fate but serves to deepen the audience's understanding of the character's tragic predicament.
Catharsis: Aristotle believed that tragedy served the purpose of purging or cleansing the audience's emotions through pity and fear. By witnessing the suffering of the tragic hero, the audience experiences a cathartic release of these emotions, which leads to a sense of emotional relief and renewal.
Examples of tragic heroes from literature
Oedipus Rex (Sophocles): Oedipus is a noble king of Thebes who unwittingly fulfills a prophecy by killing his father and marrying his mother, thus bringing about his own downfall due to his excessive pride and determination to uncover the truth.
Macbeth (William Shakespeare): Macbeth is a brave Scottish general who is driven by ambition to commit regicide and seize the throne. His unchecked ambition leads to a series of murders and his eventual downfall.
Simple and Complex Plot.
The plot may be simple or
complex. In a simple plot there are no puzzling situations such as Peripeteia
and Anagnorisis. Peripeteia is generally explained as ‘reversal of the
situation’ or shift of the protagonist’s fortune from good to bad and
anagnorisis as ‘recognition’ or ‘discovery’. By reversal of situation is meant
reversal of intention (e.g. killing an enemy and later discovering him to be a
friend.) The discovery of these false moves is anagnoris. In other words it
means a change from ignorance to knowledge. Both peripeteia and anagnorisis
please because there is an element of surprise in them. A plot that makes use
of them is complex. A perfect tragedy should be arranged not on the simple but
on the complex plot
The Structure of the Plot.
The plot being the soul of a
tragedy, the artistic arrangements of incidents are highly significant. Aristotle's three unities are principles of
classical dramatic structure that he outlined in his work "Poetics."
These unities were considered essential for creating a well-structured and
effective tragedy in ancient Greek theater. The three unities are:
- Unity of Action:
This principle suggests that a play should have a single, focused storyline with a clear and central plot. The events and actions in the play should revolve around a central theme or conflict without unnecessary subplots or digressions.
Example: In Shakespeare's play "Macbeth," the unity of action is evident as the entire play centers around Macbeth's ambition, the prophecy of the witches, and the consequences of his actions. The plot is focused on Macbeth's rise to power, his descent into madness, and ultimate downfall.
- Unity of Time:
- According to this principle, the events of the play should take place within a compressed timeframe. In classical drama, it was recommended that the action of the play should ideally occur within a 24-hour period. This was believed to create a sense of urgency and intensity in the narrative.
Example: In the ancient Greek tragedy "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the unity of time is observed as the events unfold in a single day. The play follows Oedipus as he tries to unravel the mystery of his identity and the curse on Thebes.
- Unity of Place:
- This unity suggests that a play should unfold in a single location or, at the very least, not span multiple distant locations. The idea is to maintain a sense of coherence and avoid unnecessary complexity in the setting.
Example: In Molier's (French Playwright) comedy "Tartuffe," the unity of place is observed as the majority of the play takes place in the living room of Orgon's house. The focus remains on the interactions and conflicts between the characters within this single setting.
While these unities were highly regarded in classical Greek and Roman drama, later playwrights and theatrical traditions, particularly during the Renaissance and beyond, often deviated from these strict principles in the pursuit of more complex and varied storytelling.