Marxist literary theory is a critical framework based on the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, particularly their analysis of society, economics, and power dynamics. Marxist literary theory views literature as a reflection of the socioeconomic conditions and power dynamics present in society. It emphasizes the role of literature in either perpetuating or challenging the dominant ideology of the ruling class.
Class Struggle
Marxist theory sees literature as a
battleground where different classes for dominance. Works often depict
the struggles between the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat
(the working class). For example, in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, the
stark contrast between the aristocracy and the impoverished masses illustrates
the class conflict inherent in society.
In the allegorical novel Animal
Farm by George Orwell, a group of farm animals who overthrow their human owner
and establish their own egalitarian society. However, over time, the pigs, who
represent the ruling class, become corrupted and oppress the other animals,
mirroring the rise of a totalitarian regime. The story serves as a critique of
the Russian Revolution and Stalinist dictatorship, highlighting the betrayal of
revolutionary ideals and the perpetuation of class oppression. In the most celebrated
Russian drama, The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov, Set in Russia during the
early 20th century, displays the aristocratic Ranevsky family, who face the
loss of their estate due to unpaid debts. The struggle to save the cherry
orchard symbolizes the decline of the aristocracy and the rise of the middle
class, reflecting the broader social changes and class tensions in Russian
society at the time.
Ideologies
It is in this context that texts
become relevant to wider power structures, or what Marxists call ideologies. By
ideology, we simply mean a system of ideas that's the basis for political
thinking. Ideologies are the ideas in a society that serve as the foundation
for people's opinions and which contribute to political activity.
The dominant ideology is that held
by those in power, or by the majority in society. For Marxists, ideology is a
set of ideas held by the elite, which they use power to maintain. This in turn
keeps them in a position of economic dominance. Ideology is presented by the
state as natural.
The idea of ideology was developed
by the French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser (1918-90) in his 1970 essay
'Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses '. In this work, Althusser extends
the Marxist idea of ideology to consider in more detail precisely how
ideologies are reproduced. He suggests that this takes place through the work
of two separate forces. First, what he calls the repressive state apparatuses
are those government structures, such as the police, law courts and military,
which enforce rule either through violence or coercion (the threat of
violence). These can be distinguished from the ideological state apparatuses,
which exist outside of official government structures in schools, religious
institutions and family. Here, there is no threat of violence, but rather a
fear of being socially rejected or ridiculed.
Louis Althusser, a prominent
Marxist philosopher, introduced the concepts of ISA (Ideological State Apparatuses)
and RSA (Repressive State Apparatuses) to analyze how the state maintains its
power and perpetuates dominant ideologies.
Ideological State Apparatuses
(ISA):
ISA refers to
institutions and systems in society that disseminate ideology and reinforce the
existing social order. These apparatuses function primarily through persuasion,
shaping individuals' beliefs, values, and identities to align with those of the
ruling class. Examples of ISA include:
Education system: Schools
and universities play a crucial role in transmitting knowledge, values, and
cultural norms. The curriculum often reflects the dominant ideology, promoting
ideas that justify the existing social hierarchy and economic system. For
example, history textbooks may emphasize the achievements of ruling elites
while downplaying the struggles of marginalized groups.
Religious
institutions: Churches, mosques, temples, and other religious organizations
serve as ISA by promoting specific beliefs, moral values, and modes of behavior.
Religious teachings often reinforce the authority of the ruling class and
legitimize existing power structures. For instance, religious narratives may
emphasize obedience to authority and acceptance of social inequalities as part
of divine order.
Media: Mass media
outlets, including television, radio, newspapers, and social media platforms,
disseminate information and shape public opinion. Media representations often
reflect the interests and perspectives of dominant groups, framing issues in
ways that justify existing inequalities and reinforce stereotypes. For example,
news coverage may portray protests led by marginalized communities as
disruptive or illegitimate, thereby delegitimizing dissent.
Repressive State Apparatuses (RSA): RSA refers to institutions and mechanisms of the state that enforce commands with its laws and regulations through oppression and force. Unlike ISA, which operate through persuasion, RSA maintain social order through oppression and punishment.
Police: Law enforcement
agencies, including local police departments and national security forces, are
tasked with maintaining public order and enforcing laws. Police have the
authority to use force, including arrests and physical violence, to control
behavior and suppress dissent. For example, during protests, police may use
tear gas, batons, or rubber bullets to disperse crowds and quell resistance.
Military: The military
represents the ultimate repressive force of the state, to defend national
interests and suppress internal dissent. Military interventions, such as
martial law or states of emergency, can be used to negate political opposition
and maintain the status quo.
In Marxist literary theory, the
concepts of base and superstructure are used to analyze the relationship
between the economic foundation of society (the base) and its cultural,
political, and ideological institutions (the superstructure). These concepts,
developed by Karl Marx and expanded upon by subsequent Marxist theorists,
provide a framework for understanding how economic factors shape and influence
other aspects of society, including literature and culture.
Base:
The base refers to the economic foundation of
society, including the means of production (such as factories, land, and
machinery) and the relations of production (the social relationships and modes
of organization through which goods and services are produced).
According to Marx, the base
determines the socioeconomic structure of society, shaping its political,
legal, and cultural institutions. The mode of production, whether capitalist,
feudal, or socialist, fundamentally influences the organization of society.
In capitalist societies, the
base is characterized by the exploitation of labor and the accumulation of
capital by the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) through the ownership and
control of the means of production. This economic system generates class
conflict and inequality, which Marx considered the driving force of historical
change.
Examples of the base in
literature:
In John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, the economic base of 1930s America, marked by the Great Depression and widespread poverty, shapes the experiences and struggles of the characters, particularly the Joad family, who are displaced tenant farmers forced to migrate in search of work.
In Charles Dickens' Hard Times, the industrial base of 19th-century England, characterized by the exploitation of workers in factories and mills, influences the social conditions depicted in the novel, as well as the moral and ethical values of the characters.
Superstructure
The superstructure
encompasses the cultural, political, and ideological institutions that arise
from and reflect the economic base of society. These include government, law,
religion, education, media, art, literature, and other forms of cultural
expression. According to Marx, the superstructure functions to maintain and
legitimize the existing social order, serving the interests of the ruling class
by promoting its values, beliefs, and worldview. Ideologies generated by the
superstructure often mask and justify the inequalities and contradictions
inherent in the base.
Examples of the superstructure in literature:
In George Orwell's Animal Farm, the political superstructure of the farm, including the leadership of the pigs and the manipulation of ideology through propaganda, mirrors the hierarchical power structures and ideological manipulation found in capitalist societies.
Critique of Capitalism Marxist literature often critiques capitalism and its effects on society, including alienation, commodification, and inequality. For example, in John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, the plight of migrant workers during the Great Depression highlights the devastating consequences of capitalist exploitation.
Cultural Hegemony:
Cultural hegemony refers to the dominance of the ruling class in shaping culture, values, and norms.Through control of institutions such as education, media, and art, the ruling class imposes its worldview and maintains its power.
Marxist literary theory can be
applied to great works of literature
The Grapes of Wrath" by John
Steinbeck:
This novel portrays the struggles of the Joad family, tenant farmers displaced by the Dust Bowl and forced to migrate to California in search of work during the Great Depression. Marxist analysis of the novel focuses on themes of exploitation, class struggle, and the alienation of labor under capitalism.
The Joads represent the
proletariat, or working class, while the wealthy landowners and corporations
they encounter in California represent the bourgeoisie, or ruling class. Steinbeck
critiques the capitalist system that exploits and impoverishes the working
class, highlighting the injustices faced by migrant workers and the need for
solidarity and collective action.
Les Misérables by Victor Hugo
Hugo's epic novel follows the lives of several characters in 19th-century France, including Jean Valjean, a former convict, and Cosette, his adopted daughter.
Marxist analysis of Les Misérables examines themes of poverty, inequality, and social injustice during the turbulent period of French history. The novel portrays the suffering of the poor and marginalized under the capitalist system, with Valjean representing the oppressed proletariat and the ruthless Inspector Javert symbolizing the oppressive forces of law and order. Hugo critiques the class-based society of his time and advocates for compassion, justice, and social reform.
Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky:
Dostoevsky's novel explores themes of guilt, redemption, and morality in 19th-century Russia, following the story of Raskolnikov, a young student who commits a murder.
Marxist analysis of Crime and
Punishment examines the socio-economic context of Russian society,
characterized by extreme poverty, inequality, and oppression. Raskolnikov's
crime can be interpreted as a desperate act of rebellion against the capitalist
system that perpetuates suffering and injustice.
Dostoevsky delves into the
psychological and moral consequences of living in a society rife with
exploitation and alienation, highlighting the human cost of capitalism.
These works demonstrate how Marxist
literary theory can be applied to a diverse range of works of literature,
offering insights into the socio-economic dimensions of storytelling and the
ways in which literature reflects and critiques the realities of class
struggle, exploitation, and injustice.