Explain the Marxist view of literature

 

Marxist literary theory is a critical framework based on the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, particularly their analysis of society, economics, and power dynamics.  Marxist literary theory views literature as a reflection of the socioeconomic conditions and power dynamics present in society. It emphasizes the role of literature in either perpetuating or challenging the dominant ideology of the ruling class.

Class Struggle

 Marxist theory sees literature as a battleground where different classes  for dominance. Works often depict the struggles between the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat (the working class). For example, in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, the stark contrast between the aristocracy and the impoverished masses illustrates the class conflict inherent in society.
In the allegorical novel Animal Farm by George Orwell, a group of farm animals who overthrow their human owner and establish their own egalitarian society. However, over time, the pigs, who represent the ruling class, become corrupted and oppress the other animals, mirroring the rise of a totalitarian regime. The story serves as a critique of the Russian Revolution and Stalinist dictatorship, highlighting the betrayal of revolutionary ideals and the perpetuation of class oppression. In the most celebrated Russian drama, The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov, Set in Russia during the early 20th century, displays the aristocratic Ranevsky family, who face the loss of their estate due to unpaid debts. The struggle to save the cherry orchard symbolizes the decline of the aristocracy and the rise of the middle class, reflecting the broader social changes and class tensions in Russian society at the time.

Ideologies

It is in this context that texts become relevant to wider power structures, or what Marxists call ideologies. By ideology, we simply mean a system of ideas that's the basis for political thinking. Ideologies are the ideas in a society that serve as the foundation for people's opinions and which contribute to political activity.

The dominant ideology is that held by those in power, or by the majority in society. For Marxists, ideology is a set of ideas held by the elite, which they use power to maintain. This in turn keeps them in a position of economic dominance. Ideology is presented by the state as natural.

The idea of ideology was developed by the French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser (1918-90) in his 1970 essay 'Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses '. In this work, Althusser extends the Marxist idea of ideology to consider in more detail precisely how ideologies are reproduced. He suggests that this takes place through the work of two separate forces. First, what he calls the repressive state apparatuses are those government structures, such as the police, law courts and military, which enforce rule either through violence or coercion (the threat of violence). These can be distinguished from the ideological state apparatuses, which exist outside of official government structures in schools, religious institutions and family. Here, there is no threat of violence, but rather a fear of being socially rejected or ridiculed.

Louis Althusser, a prominent Marxist philosopher, introduced the concepts of ISA (Ideological State Apparatuses) and RSA (Repressive State Apparatuses) to analyze how the state maintains its power and perpetuates dominant ideologies.

 

Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA):

   ISA refers to institutions and systems in society that disseminate ideology and reinforce the existing social order. These apparatuses function primarily through persuasion, shaping individuals' beliefs, values, and identities to align with those of the ruling class. Examples of ISA include:

 
   Education system: Schools and universities play a crucial role in transmitting knowledge, values, and cultural norms. The curriculum often reflects the dominant ideology, promoting ideas that justify the existing social hierarchy and economic system. For example, history textbooks may emphasize the achievements of ruling elites while downplaying the struggles of marginalized groups.

   Religious institutions: Churches, mosques, temples, and other religious organizations serve as ISA by promoting specific beliefs, moral values, and modes of behavior. Religious teachings often reinforce the authority of the ruling class and legitimize existing power structures. For instance, religious narratives may emphasize obedience to authority and acceptance of social inequalities as part of divine order.

 
   Media: Mass media outlets, including television, radio, newspapers, and social media platforms, disseminate information and shape public opinion. Media representations often reflect the interests and perspectives of dominant groups, framing issues in ways that justify existing inequalities and reinforce stereotypes. For example, news coverage may portray protests led by marginalized communities as disruptive or illegitimate, thereby delegitimizing dissent.

 

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSA):    RSA refers to institutions and mechanisms of the state that enforce commands with its laws and regulations through oppression and force. Unlike ISA, which operate through persuasion, RSA maintain social order through oppression and punishment.

   Police: Law enforcement agencies, including local police departments and national security forces, are tasked with maintaining public order and enforcing laws. Police have the authority to use force, including arrests and physical violence, to control behavior and suppress dissent. For example, during protests, police may use tear gas, batons, or rubber bullets to disperse crowds and quell resistance.

   Military: The military represents the ultimate repressive force of the state, to defend national interests and suppress internal dissent. Military interventions, such as martial law or states of emergency, can be used to negate political opposition and maintain the status quo.

In Marxist literary theory, the concepts of base and superstructure are used to analyze the relationship between the economic foundation of society (the base) and its cultural, political, and ideological institutions (the superstructure). These concepts, developed by Karl Marx and expanded upon by subsequent Marxist theorists, provide a framework for understanding how economic factors shape and influence other aspects of society, including literature and culture.

Base:

The base refers to the economic foundation of society, including the means of production (such as factories, land, and machinery) and the relations of production (the social relationships and modes of organization through which goods and services are produced).
According to Marx, the base determines the socioeconomic structure of society, shaping its political, legal, and cultural institutions. The mode of production, whether capitalist, feudal, or socialist, fundamentally influences the organization of society.

 In capitalist societies, the base is characterized by the exploitation of labor and the accumulation of capital by the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) through the ownership and control of the means of production. This economic system generates class conflict and inequality, which Marx considered the driving force of historical change.

  Examples of the base in literature:

In John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, the economic base of 1930s America, marked by the Great Depression and widespread poverty, shapes the experiences and struggles of the characters, particularly the Joad family, who are displaced tenant farmers forced to migrate in search of work.

In Charles Dickens' Hard Times, the industrial base of 19th-century England, characterized by the exploitation of workers in factories and mills, influences the social conditions depicted in the novel, as well as the moral and ethical values of the characters.

 

Superstructure
   The superstructure encompasses the cultural, political, and ideological institutions that arise from and reflect the economic base of society. These include government, law, religion, education, media, art, literature, and other forms of cultural expression. According to Marx, the superstructure functions to maintain and legitimize the existing social order, serving the interests of the ruling class by promoting its values, beliefs, and worldview. Ideologies generated by the superstructure often mask and justify the inequalities and contradictions inherent in the base.

Examples of the superstructure in literature:

In George Orwell's Animal Farm, the political superstructure of the farm, including the leadership of the pigs and the manipulation of ideology through propaganda, mirrors the hierarchical power structures and ideological manipulation found in capitalist societies.

Critique of Capitalism Marxist literature often critiques capitalism and its effects on society, including alienation, commodification, and inequality. For example, in John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, the plight of migrant workers during the Great Depression highlights the devastating consequences of capitalist exploitation.

Cultural Hegemony:

Cultural hegemony refers to the dominance of the ruling class in shaping culture, values, and norms.Through control of institutions such as education, media, and art, the ruling class imposes its worldview and maintains its power.

 
Marxist literary theory can be applied to great works of literature

 
The Grapes of Wrath" by John Steinbeck:

 This novel portrays the struggles of the Joad family, tenant farmers displaced by the Dust Bowl and forced to migrate to California in search of work during the Great Depression. Marxist analysis of the novel focuses on themes of exploitation, class struggle, and the alienation of labor under capitalism.

  The Joads represent the proletariat, or working class, while the wealthy landowners and corporations they encounter in California represent the bourgeoisie, or ruling class. Steinbeck critiques the capitalist system that exploits and impoverishes the working class, highlighting the injustices faced by migrant workers and the need for solidarity and collective action.

Les Misérables by Victor Hugo

Hugo's epic novel follows the lives of several characters in 19th-century France, including Jean Valjean, a former convict, and Cosette, his adopted daughter.

Marxist analysis of Les Misérables examines themes of poverty, inequality, and social injustice during the turbulent period of French history. The novel portrays the suffering of the poor and marginalized under the capitalist system, with Valjean representing the oppressed proletariat and the ruthless Inspector Javert symbolizing the oppressive forces of law and order. Hugo critiques the class-based society of his time and advocates for compassion, justice, and social reform.

 


Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky:

 Dostoevsky's novel explores themes of guilt, redemption, and morality in 19th-century Russia, following the story of Raskolnikov, a young student who commits a murder.

Marxist analysis of Crime and Punishment examines the socio-economic context of Russian society, characterized by extreme poverty, inequality, and oppression. Raskolnikov's crime can be interpreted as a desperate act of rebellion against the capitalist system that perpetuates suffering and injustice. Dostoevsky delves into the psychological and moral consequences of living in a society rife with exploitation and alienation, highlighting the human cost of capitalism.


These works demonstrate how Marxist literary theory can be applied to a diverse range of works of literature, offering insights into the socio-economic dimensions of storytelling and the ways in which literature reflects and critiques the realities of class struggle, exploitation, and injustice.

The Frankfurt School, founded in the 1920s, is a school of social theory and philosophy associated with thinkers who blended Marxist theory with other philosophical and sociological frameworks to critique modern capitalist societies. Among its most notable members were Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, and later Jürgen Habermas. Although not exclusively a literary theory school, its ideas profoundly influenced Marxist literary criticism and cultural studies by examining how culture, ideology, and mass media impact society and individual consciousness.