The Self-Unseeing by Thomas Hardy summary and question answers

 

Thomas Hardy’s “The Self-Unseeing” is a deeply retrospective poem that reflects memory and loss. The poem is autobiographical in impulse and is widely understood to recall Hardy’s childhood home at Higher Bockhampton and the memory of his parents - especially his mother, Jemima Hardy.

 

Here is the ancient floor,

Footworn and hollowed and thin,

Here was the former door

Where the dead feet walked in.

 

She sat here in her chair,

Smiling into the fire;

He who played stood there,

Bowing it higher and higher.

 

Childlike, I danced in a dream;

Blessings emblazoned that day;

Everything glowed with a gleam;

Yet we were looking away!

The poem opens with an image of the “ancient floor” immediately establishes a sense of historical depth and continuity. The floor becomes a material witness to the past. Hardy frequently uses domestic objects as repositories of memory, transforming ordinary spaces into emotional symbols. The floor is not merely old; it has been shaped by repeated human presence. The “former door” symbolizes transition—between rooms, between lives, and ultimately between the past and the present. 

The feet that once entered with life now belong to the dead, reinforcing the poem’s tone of elegy and his style of tragic realism.

The speaker animates the memory by reconstructing a domestic scene. The simple, almost conversational tone reflects the intimacy of the recollection. The chair, like the floor, becomes a symbol of habitual presence, now emptied by death. The fire suggests warmth, comfort, and domestic harmony. The woman’s smile evokes quiet happiness.

 

The identity of “He” is understated, possibly Hardy’s father, who was known to be a musician. The vague phrasing reflects the distance imposed by time and memory. The act of playing suggests art, harmony, and emotional expression within the family unit.

 The violin bow rising as the music intensifies. The repetition of “higher” implies emotional elevation.

 

The speaker introduces himself as a child, emphasizing innocence and unselfconscious joy. The phrase “in a dream” suggests the hazy, idealized quality of memory. The dance is spontaneous, unreflective—an embodiment of living fully without awareness of future loss.

 

The word “emblazoned” conveys brightness and permanence, ironically contrasting with the speaker’s failure to recognize those blessings at the time. 

“Everything glowed with a gleam;”

This line heightens the nostalgic luminosity of the memory. The repetition of light imagery (“glowed,” “gleam”) suggests an almost sacred aura, transforming a mundane family scene into a moment of quiet memory.

“Yet we were looking away!”

The poem culminates in its philosophical revelation. The exclamatory tone conveys regret and belated insight. “Looking away” signifies emotional unawareness—the failure to recognize happiness while it exists. This line perfectly encapsulates Hardy’s concept of “self-unseeing”: humanity’s tragic inability to value the present until it has irretrievably passed.

 

I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences

1. What is the central theme of The Self-Unseeing?

The central theme of The Self-Unseeing is the human tendency to remain unaware of the true value of happiness and affection while experiencing them. Hardy reflects on how moments of warmth and family love are often recognized as precious only in retrospect, after they have been lost.

 

2. How does Hardy use imagery to evoke emotion in the poem?

Hardy uses vivid domestic imagery such as the “ancient floor,” the “former door,” and the glowing fire to evoke a sense of intimacy and loss. These concrete images transform an ordinary household scene into a deeply emotional memory, highlighting the contrast between past warmth and present emptiness.

 

3. Why is the poem titled The Self-Unseeing?

The poem is titled The Self-Unseeing because it refers to the speaker’s failure to recognize the significance of happiness and familial affection while they were present. Only later, through memory, does the speaker become aware of the emotional richness of those moments.

 

II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph

4. How does Hardy contrast the past and present in the poem?

Hardy contrasts the past and present by placing the speaker physically in the present while mentally revisiting a vibrant scene from the past. The present is marked by emptiness and silence, symbolized by the worn floor and the absence of living figures, whereas the past is filled with warmth, music, movement, and familial harmony. This contrast intensifies the sense of loss and emphasizes how life and joy have been replaced by memory and absence.

 

5. What role does memory play in the speaker's understanding of the scene described in the poem?

Memory plays a crucial role in shaping the speaker’s understanding of the scene, as it allows him to recognize the emotional value of the past only after it has vanished. Through memory, ordinary domestic moments are transformed into symbols of deep affection and happiness. The poem suggests that memory brings both insight and sorrow, as awareness arrives too late to be relived.

III. Essay

6. Explore how Thomas Hardy conveys themes of loss and appreciation in The Self-Unseeing.

In The Self-Unseeing, Thomas Hardy poignantly conveys the themes of loss and belated appreciation through simple domestic imagery and reflective narration. The poem recalls a childhood memory set in the speaker’s family home, where warmth, music, and affection once existed. However, these moments are revisited only after the people involved have died, turning living joy into silent remembrance.

Hardy’s depiction of physical objects such as the “ancient floor” and the “former door” emphasizes the passage of time and the persistence of material surroundings even as human lives fade away. These objects become silent witnesses to past happiness, intensifying the sense of loss in the present. The contrast between the lively past—marked by music, dancing, and firelight—and the empty present reinforces the emotional distance between what once was and what remains.

At the same time, Hardy highlights the tragedy of unrecognized happiness. The speaker recalls that “everything glowed with a gleam,” yet admits that they were “looking away.” This confession reveals the poem’s central irony: the blessings of love and togetherness were present but unnoticed. Appreciation comes only through memory, making it inseparable from regret.

Ultimately, Hardy suggests that human beings are often “self-unseeing,” incapable of valuing life’s quiet joys while living them. The poem stands as a gentle yet profound meditation on how loss sharpens perception and how memory becomes the only means through which appreciation is fully realized.

 

Ralph Waldo Emerson Question answers

 

I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences

1. What was the name of the 19th-century American intellectual movement Emerson led?

Emerson was the leading figure of American Transcendentalism, a philosophical and literary movement that emphasized the spiritual reality underlying the material world. 

2. According to Emerson, what is the shallow art critic called an ‘umpire’ of?

Emerson calls such critics “umpires of taste”, meaning judges who evaluate art by fixed rules of form and convention rather than by spiritual insight. Their judgment remains superficial and technical.

3. What does Emerson say a true poem is, as opposed to a mere ‘talent of song’?

A true poem is a “meter-making argument”, a living thought that naturally generates its own form. Unlike a mere talent of song, it arises from profound spiritual perception rather than decorative verbal skill.

4. For Emerson, what is the entire Universe the externalisation of?

For Emerson, the Universe is the externalisation of the soul, meaning that all material facts are outward expressions of inner spiritual realities.

5. What is the poet’s unique ability regarding the ‘symbolic language’ of nature?

The poet alone can decipher and articulate nature’s symbolic language, re-attaching material facts to their spiritual meanings and expressing them through inspired speech.

6. What mythical figure does Emerson compare the poet’s vision to?

Emerson compares the poet’s vision to Lyncaeus, a mythical figure whose eyes could see through the earth, symbolising the poet’s penetrating spiritual perception.

7. What does Emerson mean when he calls language ‘fossil poetry’?

Emerson means that language originally arose from poetic insight but has lost its imaginative vitality over time. Words were once vivid metaphors that have now become hardened and lifeless.

8. What is the poet’s primary role, according to Emerson’s title for them?

The poet’s primary role is that of a “Namer” or “Language-maker”, one who assigns names according to the essence of things rather than their surface appearances.

9. How does Emerson define ‘true science’ in the context of the poet’s work?

True science is the interpretation of natural facts as symbols of spiritual truths, not the mere accumulation of empirical data. This interpretative vision belongs uniquely to the poet.

10. What is the ultimate gift the poet gives to humanity, according to the conclusion?

The poet gives humanity renewed perception, restoring spiritual meaning to the world and reviving language by reconnecting it with universal truths.

II. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each

11. Explain Emerson’s critique of the ‘umpires of taste’. What is the fundamental flaw in their understanding of art and beauty?

Emerson criticises the “umpires of taste” for reducing art to technical rules and external form. These critics possess knowledge of colour, form, and style, but their understanding is narrow, local, and mechanical. They judge art through learned conventions rather than through spiritual insight, treating beauty as something separate from moral and intellectual depth. Emerson’s central objection is that they fail to recognise that beautiful form depends entirely on a beautiful soul. By focusing on surface elegance and sensuous pleasure, they ignore the living thought or spiritual truth that alone gives art its vitality. As a result, their criticism is lifeless and incapable of recognising genuine poetic power.

12. Describe the poet’s relationship with nature according to Emerson.

For Emerson, the poet shares an intimate and symbolic relationship with nature. Nature is not merely a collection of physical objects but a living language through which spiritual truths are expressed. While ordinary people respond instinctively to nature’s symbols, they cannot articulate them consciously. The poet, however, perceives nature as the external form of the soul and understands that every fact contains a deeper meaning. He can interpret even modern realities such as factories or railways as part of nature’s grand order. By recognising the spiritual significance behind natural phenomena, the poet reconnects humanity with the universal soul and his speech flows with the rhythms of nature. 

13. Analyse Emerson’s statement that ‘we are symbols and inhabit symbols.’ How does this idea form the basis of his theory of the poet’s function?

When Emerson says that “we are symbols and inhabit symbols,” he means that human life itself is symbolic. All aspects of existence—work, language, birth, death, and material objects—are expressions of deeper spiritual ideas. However, most people are absorbed in the practical uses of things and fail to recognise their symbolic nature. This limitation creates the need for the poet. The poet’s function is to restore awareness of the symbolic order of existence by interpreting material facts as expressions of thought. By giving “eyes and a tongue” to inanimate objects, the poet reveals their spiritual meaning. This symbolic worldview forms the foundation of Emerson’s theory, positioning the poet as the essential interpreter of reality.

14. What does Emerson mean when he says the poet sees ‘the flowing or metamorphosis’ in nature? How does this perception inform the poet’s work?

By “flowing or metamorphosis,” Emerson refers to the constant transformation and upward movement inherent in nature. The poet perceives that all forms are temporary and that within every creature exists a force urging it toward a higher state. Unlike ordinary observers, the poet sees nature not as static objects but as dynamic processes. This vision allows the poet to follow life itself rather than fixed forms. Consequently, poetic expression becomes fluid and organic, mirroring the movement of nature. The poet’s language flows naturally because it is shaped by life and change, not by rigid conventions.

15. Contrast the poet’s use of forms with that of a mere craftsman.

A mere craftsman works according to established forms and techniques, valuing structure over meaning. His focus remains on external shape, polish, and correctness. The poet, in contrast, uses forms according to life rather than imposing life onto form. Form arises naturally from the poet’s perception of spiritual truth. While the craftsman imitates patterns, the poet creates organically, allowing thought to generate its own expression. Thus, the poet’s work is alive and transformative, whereas the craftsman’s work remains mechanical and limited.

16. What is Emerson’s theory of the origin of language?

Emerson argues that language originated in poetic insight. Every word was once a vivid metaphor created by a moment of genius to express a living perception of the world. Over time, these original meanings faded, turning language into “fossil poetry.” Although modern speakers use words mechanically, the etymologist can uncover their original imaginative force. The poet’s role is to revive language by reconnecting words with their spiritual origins.

III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words each

17. Emerson positions the poet as a visionary prophet rather than a mere artist. Analyse how he constructs this argument.

Emerson constructs the poet as a visionary prophet by redefining poetic ability as spiritual perception rather than technical skill. The poet possesses an “ulterior intellectual perception” that allows him to see beyond appearances into the eternal truths underlying nature. This vision places the poet “one step nearer to things,” enabling him to perceive the metamorphosis and unity of all existence. Unlike ordinary individuals, the poet understands that material facts are symbols of spiritual realities.

Central to this prophetic role is the poet’s function as a “Namer.” By assigning names according to essence rather than convention, the poet brings intellectual clarity and spiritual order to the world. Language itself becomes a vehicle of revelation. Through renewed naming, the poet liberates humanity from lifeless language and habitual thought.

Finally, Emerson presents the poet as a liberator. By revealing the symbolic nature of reality, the poet frees people from their fixation on utility and convention. He restores wonder, reconnects humanity with the universal soul, and reveals the divine order hidden within everyday life. In this way, the poet becomes a moral and spiritual guide rather than a mere producer of aesthetic pleasure.

18. Central to Emerson’s essay is the concept of transcendentalist thought. Discuss.

Emerson’s essay embodies the core principles of Transcendentalism: the belief in a universal soul, the symbolic nature of reality, and the supremacy of natural or innate knowledge over empirical facts. Transcendentalist thought rejects materialism and insists that truth is accessible through spiritual insight rather than sensory experience alone.

In “The Poet,” Emerson presents nature as a symbolic manifestation of the Over-Soul. Every object and event signifies a deeper spiritual truth. The poet, through intuition, perceives this unity and articulates it for others. This emphasis on intuition and inner vision reflects the transcendentalist conviction that the individual mind participates in universal reason.

 The poet’s role is to renew perception, break through habitual thinking, and restore a direct relationship between the soul and the world. Thus, transcendentalist thought forms the philosophical foundation of Emerson’s vision of poetry.

19. How does Emerson define the poet’s role and the nature of true poetry?

Emerson defines the poet as a spiritual interpreter who reveals the symbolic meaning of the universe. The poet does not merely describe reality but re-creates it by translating spiritual truths into language. True poetry arises from profound insight rather than technical mastery.

For Emerson, a true poem is a “meter-making argument,” meaning that form naturally emerges from thought. Poetry is not decorative but revelatory, expressing the soul’s encounter with universal truth. The poet’s language is alive because it follows the flow of nature and thought.

Ultimately, the poet serves humanity by restoring meaning to the world. Through renewed language and perception, the poet reveals the unity of nature, humanity, and the divine, making poetry an act of spiritual revelation rather than artistic ornamentation.

20. “I look in vain for the poet whom I describe.” Discuss the tension between Emerson’s ideals and reality.

This statement reveals the tension between Emerson’s exalted ideal of the poet and the limitations of actual human achievement. Emerson envisions a poet who fully embodies spiritual insight, linguistic originality and moral authority. Such a figure would perfectly interpret the symbolic universe and renew language completely.

However, Emerson recognises that no existing poet fully satisfies this ideal. Historical poets approach the vision only partially, constrained by personal, social, and linguistic limitations. This admission underscores the aspirational nature of his theory. The ideal poet functions as a guiding standard rather than a realistic expectation.

The tension highlights Emerson’s belief in human potential while acknowledging human imperfection. His essay thus serves not only as a description of poetry but as a challenge to future poets to rise beyond convention and approach the transcendental ideal he outlines.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge Question answers

 

I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences

1. What was the name of the joint publication by Coleridge and Wordsworth that launched the Romantic movement?

The joint publication was Lyrical Ballads (1798). It is widely regarded as the work that formally launched the Romantic movement in English literature by redefining the themes, language, and purpose of poetry.

2. Which German philosopher's ideas deeply influenced Coleridge's critical work?

Coleridge was deeply influenced by the ideas of Immanuel Kant. Kant’s philosophy shaped Coleridge’s thinking on perception, consciousness, and the nature of imagination.

3. In which famous chapter of Biographia Literaria does Coleridge define the Imagination?

Coleridge defines the Imagination most famously in Chapter XIII of Biographia Literaria. This chapter contains his authoritative distinction between Primary Imagination, Secondary Imagination, and Fancy.

4. According to Coleridge, what is Fancy?

Fancy is a mechanical faculty dependent on memory and association. It merely combines fixed and ready-made elements without transforming or unifying them creatively.

5. Name the two forms of Imagination that Coleridge identifies.

Coleridge identifies Primary Imagination and Secondary Imagination. Both are creative faculties, differing in degree and mode of operation.

6. What does the Secondary Imagination “dissolve, diffuse, and dissipate” in order to do?

The Secondary Imagination dissolves and breaks down existing impressions in order to re-create and unify them into new artistic forms. This process makes genuine poetic creation possible.

7. What term does Coleridge use for the reader's “willing suspension of disbelief”?

Coleridge uses the term “poetic faith”. It refers to the reader’s temporary acceptance of imaginative truth during the poetic experience.

8. What was Coleridge's primary criticism of Wordsworth's idea of using the ‘real language of men’?

Coleridge argued that poetic language cannot be identical to ordinary speech. He insisted that poetry requires a more refined, reflective, and philosophical language than everyday rustic usage.

9. According to Coleridge, what is the immediate purpose of a poem?

According to Coleridge, the immediate purpose of a poem is to give pleasure. Truth is the ultimate aim, but it is conveyed indirectly through aesthetic delight.

10. Which concept did John Keats develop later related to Coleridge's theories?

John Keats later developed the concept of Negative Capability. It reflects Coleridge’s idea of the imagination’s power to hold contradictions without seeking logical resolution.

II. Answer the following questions in about 150 words

11. Explain Coleridge's distinction between Primary and Secondary Imagination.

Coleridge distinguishes between Primary and Secondary Imagination based on function and degree. Primary Imagination is universal and unconscious; it is the fundamental power through which all human beings perceive and organise sensory experience. Coleridge describes it as a repetition, in the finite human mind.

Secondary Imagination, on the other hand, belongs specifically to the artist or poet. It operates with conscious will and intellectual effort. While it resembles the primary imagination in kind, it differs in degree and mode of operation. The secondary imagination dissolves, diffuses, and reshapes perceptions received through the primary imagination to create new, unified artistic forms. Thus, the key difference lies in creative transformation, which is exclusive to the secondary imagination.

12. Differentiate between Fancy and Imagination.

Coleridge sharply differentiates Fancy from Imagination. Imagination is a vital, creative, and unifying power that transforms experience into organic artistic wholes. It actively reshapes reality and fuses diverse elements into meaningful unity.

Fancy, in contrast, is mechanical and passive. It is merely a form of memory operating through association and choice. Fancy can combine images but cannot transform or fuse them. While imagination creates, fancy decorates. Therefore, imagination is the essence of poetry, whereas fancy results in superficial ornamentation without depth or originality.

13. How did Coleridge's personal struggles and intellectual friendships contribute to his development as a central Romantic figure?

Coleridge’s personal struggles, including his unhappy marriage, lack of formal academic completion, and addiction to opium, created emotional instability but also deepened his introspective and philosophical temperament. His intellectual friendships, particularly with William Wordsworth, played a significant role in shaping his poetic and critical vision. Their collaboration on Lyrical Ballads stimulated Coleridge’s interest in imagination and poetic theory. Additionally, his exposure to German philosophy during his travels expanded his critical framework. These combined experiences positioned Coleridge as both a Romantic poet and a profound literary theorist.

14. Briefly describe Coleridge's critique of Wordsworth's poetic theory.

In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge critiques Wordsworth’s claim that poetry should employ the “real language of men.” While he agrees with Wordsworth’s aim of deepening human emotion, Coleridge argues that poetic language must be refined and philosophical, not merely rustic. He questions whether profound thought can be sustained in a deliberately low or plain style. Coleridge also points out inconsistencies between Wordsworth’s theory and his actual poetic practice. 

15. Describe how Coleridge's definition of the ideal Poet and the purpose of poetry differed from neoclassical views.

Neoclassical critics viewed poetry primarily as imitation governed by fixed rules and rational order. Coleridge rejects this mechanical view. He defines the ideal poet as one who activates the whole soul, using imagination to reconcile opposites such as emotion and thought, freedom and order. For Coleridge, poetry is not imitation but an imaginative act. Its immediate purpose is pleasure, achieved through organic unity, rather than moral instruction or adherence to rigid forms.

16. How did Coleridge's theories on imagination act as a bridge between early and later Romanticism?

Coleridge’s theory of imagination provided Romanticism with a philosophical foundation. By defining imagination as a creative, unifying power rather than mere fancy, he influenced later Romantics such as Shelley and Keats, who emphasized visionary experience and imaginative freedom. His ideas allowed Romantic poetry to move beyond nature-description towards symbolic, metaphysical, and psychological exploration. Thus, Coleridge bridged early Romantic emphasis on emotion with later Romantic complexity and introspection.

III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words

17. Analyse the philosophical underpinnings of Coleridge's theory of Imagination.

Coleridge’s theory of imagination is deeply rooted in German Idealist philosophy, particularly the ideas of Immanuel Kant and Schelling. Kant’s distinction between passive sensation and active perception influenced Coleridge’s view that the human mind actively shapes reality. For Coleridge, perception itself is a creative act, not a mechanical reception of impressions.

This belief leads to his conception of Primary Imagination as the “living power” of perception, a finite repetition of the divine act of creation. Here, Coleridge blends philosophy with theology, suggesting that human creativity reflects the creative principle of God.

The Secondary Imagination extends this idea into the realm of art. It consciously transforms experience, dissolving fixed impressions in order to re-create them into unified artistic forms. This emphasis on organic unity directly opposes Enlightenment materialism and mechanical theories of mind.

Coleridge also rejects associationist psychology, which reduces mental activity to memory and habit. Instead, he presents imagination as dynamic, vital, and synthetic. Thus, his theory represents a philosophical synthesis of metaphysics, theology, and aesthetics, making imagination the central force behind both perception and poetic creation.

18. How did Coleridge justify the need for a refined poetic language?

Coleridge argued that poetic language must differ from the “real language of men” because poetry deals with heightened emotion, reflection, and imaginative truth. Ordinary speech, shaped by practical needs, lacks the precision and depth required for poetic expression.

He maintained that poetry arises from deep thought and philosophical reflection, not from rustic simplicity. While Wordsworth believed common language brought poetry closer to life, Coleridge countered that poetic diction must be selective and elevated, though not artificial.

Coleridge also stressed organic unity, where language, metre, imagery, and thought work together harmoniously. Such unity cannot be achieved through unrefined speech. Therefore, poetic language must be refined to convey complex emotional and intellectual experiences effectively.

19. Discuss the contribution of the poet-critic S. T. Coleridge in literary theory.

Coleridge’s contribution to literary theory is both foundational and transformative. Through Biographia Literaria, he established literary criticism on a philosophical basis. His distinction between Imagination and Fancy reshaped understanding of poetic creativity.

He introduced key concepts such as organic unity, poetic faith, and the esemplastic power of imagination. Coleridge was also the first English critic to offer a systematic philosophical account of imagination, integrating German Idealism with English literary tradition.

 As a poet-critic, Coleridge bridged creative practice and critical reflection, profoundly influencing Romantic and modern literary criticism.

20. How does Romantic poetry embody the creative power of imagination?

Romantic poetry embodies imagination as a transformative and unifying force. Rather than merely imitating reality, Romantic poets reshape experience through imaginative vision. In Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, imagination fuses the natural and supernatural to explore guilt and redemption.

Wordsworth uses imagination to give emotional depth to ordinary life, while Shelley and Keats extend imaginative power to philosophical and symbolic realms. Imagination harmonises opposites—emotion and intellect, nature and self—into organic unity. Thus, Romantic poetry exemplifies imagination as the central creative faculty that reveals deeper truths beyond rational explanation.

Introduction to Romanticism Question answers

I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences.

1. Name two economic or political changes that helped lay the foundations for Romanticism.

The French Revolution (1789–1799) and the Industrial Revolution were the two major political and economic developments that inspired Romanticism. The French Revolution generated ideals of liberty and human emancipation, while industrial modernisation created social alienation that Romantic writers reacted against.

2. Identify any two poems that featured in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads (1798).

Two poems included in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads were Wordsworth’s “Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey” and Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.”

3. Which philosopher is credited with the idea of the ‘noble savage’ that influenced Romantic thought?

The concept of the “noble savage” is associated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose ideas deeply influenced Romantic views of nature and primitive innocence.

4. What does the term ‘negative capability’ refer to in Keats’s philosophy?

“Negative capability” refers to the poet’s ability to remain in uncertainty, mystery, and doubt without seeking logical explanations or fixed doctrines.

5. Name one female author from the Romantic period and one of her works.

Mary Shelley was a major Romantic writer, and her most famous work is Frankenstein (1818).

6. Which artistic movement emerged in the late 19th century as a direct reaction against Romanticism’s ideals?

Realism emerged as a reaction against Romantic idealism, emphasising objective representation of everyday life instead of imagination and emotional intensity.

7. What was the title of Shelley’s essay that serves as a manifesto of Romantic principles?

Shelley’s essay is titled A Defence of Poetry serves as the manifesto of Romantic princ

8. What was the Romantics’ view of the language used by Neoclassical poets?

The Romantics rejected Neoclassical “poetic diction” as artificial and preferred the simple language of common people.

9. Which two major revolutions are cited as key sources of inspiration for Romanticism?

The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution are cited as the two major sources of inspiration.

10. Name any two German philosophers whose ideas influenced S. T. Coleridge.

Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Schelling influenced Coleridge’s theory of imagination.

II. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

11. Explain how the Romantic view of Nature differed from the Neoclassical age.

In the Neoclassical age, nature was understood through reason, order and scientific laws, particularly the Newtonian view of nature as a mechanical system. Romantic writers rejected this notion and instead viewed nature as living, organic and spiritually animated. According to the Romantics, nature was not external or passive but deeply connected to human emotion and imagination. As stated in the text, Coleridge regarded nature as a “language of God”, capable of communicating moral and emotional truths. Nature offered spiritual renewal to individuals alienated by industrialisation and urban life. Romantic poets also idealised rural simplicity as morally superior to city life. Thus, unlike Neoclassicism, which treated nature as an object of rational study, Romanticism transformed nature into a source of emotional, moral, and imaginative unity.

12. How did Wordsworth define poetry?

Wordsworth defined poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquillity.” This definition emphasises that poetry originates in strong emotion but is shaped through calm reflection. Wordsworth rejected artificial poetic diction and rigid formal rules, insisting that poetry should arise from ordinary human experience and be expressed in simple language. His definition reflects the Romantic belief that emotion and imagination are more important than reason or technical ornamentation. Poetry, for Wordsworth, is a deeply personal and emotional act rather than a product of intellectual expression.

13. Why did William Blake disagree with what he saw as the oppressive rationality of Voltaire and Rousseau?

Blake opposed Enlightenment rationality because he believed it restricted imagination and spiritual freedom. Blake saw the world as inherently composed of opposites and contradictions, which could not be reconciled through reason alone. Figures such as Voltaire and Rousseau, in Blake’s view, embodied a form of rational thought that suppressed imagination. Blake believed that imagination, not reason, was the true source of human liberation. His mystical and symbolic poetry sought to harmonise contraries and challenge what he considered the tyranny of rational systems.

14. Analyse how political events in France influenced the early and later Romantics.

The French Revolution initially inspired the Romantics with hope, optimism and belief in human liberation. Early poets such as Wordsworth and Coleridge welcomed it as a revolutionary transformation of society. However, as the Revolution descended into violence and terror, this enthusiasm faded. Later Romantic writers became more critical and disillusioned. Poets like Shelley and Byron continued to oppose tyranny and oppression, but their work reflects protest, satire and ideological critique rather than celebration. Thus, French political events shaped Romanticism’s movement from optimism to critical resistance.

15. What is meant by the “corrosive dualisms” inherited by the Romantics?

The “corrosive dualisms” refer to the deep divisions produced by modernity, such as reason versus emotion, Nature versus Culture individual versus society, past versus present, and sensation versus intellect. As noted by critics like Lukács, Abrams and Raymond Williams, the Romantics inherited a fragmented world shaped by capitalist and political forces. These dualisms caused alienation and disunity. The Romantic project aimed to overcome such fragmentation by seeking a unifying vision, primarily through imagination and aesthetic experience.

16. What were the preoccupations of the second generation of Romantic poets?

The second generation of Romantic poets—Byron, Shelley, and Keats—were preoccupied with political oppression, rebellion, and social injustice. Their work reflects disillusionment with revolutionary failure and modern hypocrisy. Shelley focused on tyranny and ideal freedom, Byron employed satire to expose corruption, and Keats explored beauty, transience, and uncertainty through concepts such as negative capability. Unlike the first generation’s optimism, their poetry is marked by critique, introspection, and philosophical depth.

III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words. 

17. “Romanticism was both a product of and a reaction against the Enlightenment.” Discuss.

Romanticism developed within the intellectual climate shaped by the Enlightenment, yet it strongly reacted against its dominant assumptions. Enlightenment thought emphasised reason, scientific inquiry, and rational order, and it inspired political ideals of freedom and reform. Romantic writers initially shared these aspirations, particularly in their enthusiastic response to the French Revolution, which promised liberty and human emancipation.

However, Romanticism rejected the Enlightenment’s exclusive focus on reason. Enlightenment rationalism, according to the Romantics, reduced nature to a mechanical system and human beings to rational units, ignoring imagination, emotion, and spirituality. Romantic writers opposed this reductionist view by asserting the supremacy of imagination as a means of understanding reality.

As the text explains, the Romantics inherited a fragmented world marked by modern economic and political practices. Their response was not scientific analysis but aesthetic and imaginative synthesis. While Romanticism retained Enlightenment ideals of freedom and opposition to tyranny, it transformed them by grounding human knowledge in emotion, intuition, and creative vision. Thus, Romanticism emerged both from Enlightenment ideals and against its limitations.

18. Trace the evolution of Romanticism in England from initial optimism to later critique.

English Romanticism began with intense optimism inspired by the French Revolution. Early Romantic poets such as Blake, Wordsworth, and Coleridge regarded the Revolution as a symbol of human liberation and moral renewal. This hope encouraged a new literary vision centred on imagination, nature, and subjective experience. The publication of Lyrical Ballads in 1798 marked the formal beginning of this phase.

As the Revolution descended into violence and industrial capitalism expanded, Romantic optimism weakened. The growth of industrial cities and bourgeois values produced social alienation and injustice. Later Romantic poets—Byron, Shelley, and Keats—responded with political criticism, philosophical reflection, and aesthetic complexity. Shelley attacked tyranny, Byron satirised hypocrisy, and Keats explored beauty and uncertainty. Romanticism thus evolved from revolutionary enthusiasm to a critical engagement with modern reality.

19. What are the chief characteristic features of the Romantic movement?

Romanticism is characterised by emphasis on imagination, emotion, individuality, and creative freedom. It rejects Neoclassical rules, imitation, and artificial poetic diction. Nature occupies a central place as a spiritual and moral force rather than a mechanical system. Romantic literature is subjective, often employing the first-person voice.

Other key features include fascination with the supernatural, the exotic, medievalism, folklore, and nationalism. Romantic writers criticised bourgeois materialism and industrial society and idealised rural simplicity and primitive innocence. Above all, Romanticism redefined the poet as a visionary genius capable of restoring unity to a fragmented world.

20. What is Romantic Imagination and how is it used by the poets?

Romantic imagination is the creative power that actively transforms experience, rather than merely imitating reality. It enables the poet to perceive hidden connections between nature, emotion, and the human mind. For the Romantics, imagination was superior to reason because it could reconcile opposites and overcome fragmentation.

Wordsworth used imagination to interpret nature as a moral and spiritual presence. Coleridge theorised imagination as a synthetic power that unifies opposites. Shelley regarded imagination as a revolutionary force capable of social transformation. Keats employed imagination through negative capability, allowing uncertainty and openness to experience. Thus, Romantic imagi

nation functioned as both an aesthetic and ideological tool.